练习第三册第十课

下午没课，就把这课的全面注音练了一下，昨天晚上，练的是这一课的简单注音，感觉上是听得还可以，还是手慢，今天下午在20%，30%的速度下进行了全面的注音，
就关于题目 I never thought i'd ask anyone this again 的ask anyone this again的ask anyone的连读 我听了多次才有感觉，后面的this again也是 ，
文中的d，k，p，在词尾的音听得还可以，t在20%听着有 吃 的音，原来也有这样的感觉，不知道是不是这么回事，
to在句中连读是就像 特 的音，
另外那句 we had italian dressing or blue chease dressing 的那个blue总是听不清楚，
with me的连读也是听了几次才听清的，像 don‘t，didn‘t感觉听得也很模糊，fried的f有时听着有b的音，不知道听得对不对，
那句 will you marry me 的will you 的l与you的连读听着像d you。，那句do you have fried chicken的have 的ha听不出来，只听得有do you ve 好像，
那句i want to talk about us 的about us听着有点像 abls，不知道是不是跟talk的l有连读；
老师看看我上面的是不是对什么的
还有一些 东西，来不及写，明天来下午也没课，
正好还可以比较充分的练一下

最近一直在忙考试，就没来得及学英语，有所耽误，基本是保温练习，这些天一直在上个托福的班，也明白了不少，跟孙老师的方法好好结合一下，我会陆续把学习的过程在写上来的，但还得等些天，等这些日子忙完了课设

教训
今天下午考了一下六级,满以为应该是不错的,可是结果感觉特别差劲,听力又是没有听懂什么,阅读题做得很慢,时间很紧张,就有不过脑子的感觉,估计这次又过不了了,有点觉得丢人

由此一看,我根本就没达到深度听清,其实在平时练习中我也有此感觉,听力都是处在一个听清但听不懂的程度,这些天略读的多,精读的少,以致考试时阅读总是不能把心静下来,听写也没有写出来,压码水平还差得远,显然还是压不住,单词量也不够

归根到底,还是我平时练习偷懒,既没有认真的练习方法,也没有协调好与其它课的安排,由此一看,我的英语之路还是任重道远.

Cosmology 宇宙学
Main article: Physical cosmology主要文章： 物理宇宙学

Cosmology (from the Greek κοσμος "world, universe" and λογος "word, study") could be considered the study of the universe as a whole.宇宙学（来自希腊语κοσμος “世界，宇宙”和λογος “字，学习” ）可以被认为是宇宙研究的整体。

Observations of the large-scale structure of the universe , a branch known as physical cosmology , have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos.意见的大尺度结构的宇宙 ，一个分支称为物理宇宙学 ，提供了一个深入了解的形成与演化的宇宙。 Fundamental to modern cosmology is the well-accepted theory of the big bang , wherein our universe began at a single point in time, and thereafter expanded over the course of 13.7 Gyr to its present condition.现代宇宙学的基本是公认的理论， 宇宙大爆炸 ，其中我们的宇宙开始于一个单一的时间点，并在其后扩大的过程中13.7 Gyr其现状。 The concept of the big bang can be traced back to the discovery of the microwave background radiation in 1965.这一概念的大爆炸，可以追溯到发现微波背景辐射在1965年。

In the course of this expansion, the universe underwent several evolutionary stages.在这次扩张，宇宙的演化经历了几个阶段。 In the very early moments, it is theorized that the universe experienced a very rapid cosmic inflation , which homogenized the starting conditions.在非常早的时刻，这是理论，认为宇宙经历了非常迅速的宇宙通货膨胀 ，这趋同的出发条件。 Thereafter, nucleosynthesis produced the elemental abundance of the early universe.此后， 核合成制作的元素丰度的早期宇宙。 (See also nucleocosmochronology .) （另见nucleocosmochronology 。 ）

When the first atoms formed, space became transparent to radiation, releasing the energy viewed today as the microwave background radiation.当第一个原子形成的，以空间变得透明，以辐射，释放的能量看待今天的微波背景辐射。 The expanding universe then underwent a Dark Age due to the lack of stellar energy sources. [ 49 ]不断扩大的宇宙然后经历了黑暗时代，由于缺乏恒星能源。 [ 49 ]

A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density.层次结构的物质开始形成从分钟不同的密度。 Matter accumulated in the densest regions, forming clouds of gas and the earliest stars .问题中积累的最密集的区域，形成的气体云和最早的恒星 。 These massive stars triggered the reionization process and are believed to have created many of the heavy elements in the early universe which tend to decay back to the lighter elements extending the cycle.这些大质量恒星触发了电离过程，被认为是创造了许多的重元素在早期宇宙往往衰变回到轻元素延长周期。

Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps.引力聚集分为长丝，留下空隙中的空白。 Gradually, organizations of gas and dust merged to form the first primitive galaxies.渐渐地，组织的气体和尘埃合并为第一原始星系。 Over time, these pulled in more matter, and were often organized into groups and clusters of galaxies, then into larger-scale superclusters. [ 50 ]随着时间的推移，这些恼人的更多的问题，往往被组织成团体和集群的星系，然后到较大规模的超。 [ 50 ]

Fundamental to the structure of the universe is the existence of dark matter and dark energy .基本的结构是宇宙的存在暗物质和暗能量 。 These are now thought to be the dominant components, forming 96% of the density of the universe.这些都是现在认为是主要的组成部分，形成96 ％的密度的宇宙。 For this reason, much effort is expended in trying to understand the physics of these components. [ 51 ]为此，花费了很大的努力是在试图了解物理学这些组件。 [ 51 ]

Interdisciplinary studies  跨学科研究

Astronomy and astrophysics have developed significant interdisciplinary links with other major scientific fields. Archaeoastronomy is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context, utilizing archaeological and anthropological evidence. Astrobiology is the study of the advent and evolution of biological systems in the universe, with particular emphasis on the possibility of non-terrestrial life.天文学和天体物理学发展重大学科与其他主要的科学领域。 Archaeoastronomy是研究古代或传统astronomies在其文化背景，利用考古和人类学的证据。 天体生物学是研究的出现和演变的生物系统在宇宙中，特别强调的可能性，非陆地生活。

The study of chemicals found in space, including their formation, interaction and destruction, is called Astrochemistry .这项研究的化学品中发现的空间，包括它们的形成，互动和破坏，被称为Astrochemistry 。 These substances are usually found in molecular clouds , although they may also appear in low temperature stars, brown dwarfs and planets. Cosmochemistry is the study of the chemicals found within the Solar System , including the origins of the elements and variations in the isotope ratios.这些物质通常是在分子云 ，尽管他们也可能出现在低温星，褐矮星和行星。 宇宙化学是研究发现的化学品的太阳能系统 ，包括起源的要素和不同的同位素比值。 Both of these fields represent an overlap of the disciplines of astronomy and chemistry.这两个领域是一个重叠的各学科的天文学和化学。

Amateur astronomy  业余天文学
Main article: Amateur astronomy主要文章： 业余天文学
Amateur astronomers can build their own equipment, and can hold star parties and gatherings, such as Stellafane .天文爱好者可以建立自己的设备，以及可容纳各方明星和集会，如Stellafane 。

Astronomy is one of the sciences to which amateurs can contribute the most [ 52 ] .天文学是一个科学的业余爱好者能够有助于最[ 52 ] 。

Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena sometimes with equipment that they build themselves .集体业余天文学家观察各种天体和现象有时设备 ， 它们自身建设 。
Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a variety of deep-sky objects such as star clusters, galaxies, and nebulae.共同目标的业余天文学家包括月球，行星，恒星，彗星，流星雨，以及各种深空天体 ，如恒星群，星系和星云。 One branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography , involves the taking of photos of the night sky.一间分行的业余天文学，业余天文摄影 ，涉及到的照片夜空。
Many amateurs like to specialize in the observation of particular objects, types of objects, or types of events which interest them. [ 53 ] [ 54 ]许多业余爱好者想专注于特定的观察对象，类型的对象，或类型的活动，使他们感兴趣的。 [ 53 ] [ 54 ]

Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum.大多数业余工作波长在可见的，但少数人实验波长以外的可见光谱。
This includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes.这包括使用红外线常规望远镜，并使用射电望远镜。 The pioneer of amateur radio astronomy was Karl Jansky who started observing the sky at radio wavelengths in the 1930s.的先驱业余无线电天文学卡尔詹斯基谁观测天空开始在无线电波长在20世纪30年代。 A number of amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs ( eg the One-Mile Telescope ). [ 55 ] [ 56 ]一些业余天文学家使用自制的望远镜或使用射电望远镜原来内置的天文学研究，但目前已提供给业余爱好者（ 例如 一英里望远镜 ） 。 [ 55 ] [ 56 ]

Amateur astronomers continue to make scientific contributions to the field of astronomy.业余天文学家继续作出贡献的科学领域的天文学。 Indeed, it is one of the few scientific disciplines where amateurs can still make significant contributions.实际上，它是少数学科在业余爱好者仍然可以作出重要的贡献。 Amateurs can make occultation measurements that are used to refine the orbits of minor planets.业余可以掩星测量，用于完善轨道小行星。 They can also discover comets, and perform regular observations of variable stars.他们还可以发现彗星，并进行定期观测的变星。 Improvements in digital technology have allowed amateurs to make impressive advances in the field of astrophotography. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ]数字化技术的改进，使业余爱好者能够令人印象深刻的进步领域的天文摄影。 [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ]

    Major questions in astronomy   主要问题在天文学
See also: Unsolved problems in physics另见： 尚未解决的问题在物理

Although the scientific discipline of astronomy has made tremendous strides in understanding the nature of the universe and its contents, there remain some important unanswered questions.虽然科学学科的天文学方面取得了巨大进步，在了解宇宙的性质和它的内容，但仍然存在着一些重要问题没有得到回答。
Answers to these may require the construction of new ground- and space-based instruments, and possibly new developments in theoretical and experimental physics.回答这些可能需要建设新的地面和空间为基础的手段，以及可能的新发展的理论和实验物理。

    * What is the origin of the stellar mass spectrum?什么是原产地的恒星质量谱？ That is, why do astronomers observe the same distribution of stellar masses—the initial mass function —apparently regardless of the initial conditions? [ 60 ] A deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed.这就是，为什么同样的天文学家观察恒星分布的群众，在最初的大规模功能 ，显然，无论初始条件？ [ 60 ]更深入的了解形成恒星和行星是必要的。
    * Is there other life in the Universe ?是否有其他宇宙生命 ？
     Especially, is there other intelligent life?尤其是，是否有其他智慧生命？
     If so, what is the explanation for the Fermi paradox ?如果是这样，有什么解释费米悖论 ？ The existence of life elsewhere has important scientific and philosophical implications. [ 61 ] [ 62 ]生命的存在具有重要的其他科学和哲学的影响。 [ 61 ] [ 62 ]
    * What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy?是什么性质的暗物质和暗能量？ These dominate the evolution and fate of the cosmos, yet we are still uncertain about their true natures. [ 63 ]这些占主导地位的演化和命运的宇宙，但我们仍然不知道它们的真正性质。 [ 63 ]
    * Why did the universe come to be?为什么宇宙中来呢？ Why, for example, are the physical constants so finely tuned that they permit the existence of life?例如，为什么是这样的物理常数微调 ，他们允许生命的存在？ Could they be the result of cosmological natural selection ?可他们是由于宇宙自然选择 ？ What caused the cosmic inflation that produced our homogeneous universe? [ 64 ]是什么造成了宇宙的通货膨胀产生的均匀的宇宙？ [ 64 ]
    * What will be the ultimate fate of the universe ? [ 65 ]什么是宇宙最终命运 ？ [ 65 ]

The International Year of Astronomy 2009  在2009年国际天文学年
Main article: International Year of Astronomy主要文章： 国际天文学年

During the 62nd General Assembly of the UN , 2009 was declared to be the International Year of Astronomy (IYA2009), with the resolution being made official on 20 December 2008.在第62次大会的联合国 ， 2009年被宣布为国际天文学年 （ IYA2009 ） ，该决议作出正式于12月20日2008年。
A global scheme laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), it has also been endorsed by UNESCO — the UN body responsible for Educational, Scientific and Cultural matters.一个全球性的计划所规定的国际天文学联盟 （天文学联盟） ，也有人赞同教科文组织 -的联合国机构，负责教育，科学及文化事宜。
IYA2009 is intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people. IYA2009是一种全球庆祝天文学和其对社会的贡献和文化，促进全球利益不仅在天文学，但科学的一般，尤其对年轻人倾斜。

[ edit ] See also [ 编辑 ]另见
    Astronomy portal 天文学门户
    Space portal 空间门户
    Wikipedia:Books has a book on: Astronomy 维基百科：书籍有一本书： 天文学

    * Astrology and astronomy 占星术和天文学
    * Astronomer 天文学家
    * Astrophysics Data System 天体物理数据系统
    * Category:Ancient astronomy 分类：古代天文学
    * Category:Astronomical observatories 分类：天文观测台
    * Category:Astronomy organizations 分类：天文组织
    * Category:Astronomy timelines 分类：天文学时间表
    * Constellation 星座
    * Cosmogony 宇宙
    * Extragalactic Distance Scale 外距离尺度
    * International Year of Astronomy 国际天文学年
    * List of astronomy acronyms 名单天文学缩略语
    * List of basic astronomy topics 名单基本天文学主题
    * Solar System 太阳能系统
    * Space exploration 空间探索
    * Space science 空间科学
    * Telescope 望远镜

这些日子要准备期末的论文和作业,英文的练习在两周内进入保持阶段,以基础练习和总结为主

存在的问题

听力,阅读能力都有不小的提高,但最近对于听说有些懈怠,也许是最近的时间并没有太多,基础方法的巩固还要加固,现在到了第八册

Laozi老子
    
    
Full name姓名    Laozi (Lao Tzu, Lao Tse, Laotze, Lao Zi)老子（老子，老子， Laotze ，老子）    
School/tradition学校/传统    Taoism 道教    
Notable ideas值得注意的想法    Wu wei 吴炜    
Laozi ( Chinese : 老 子 ; pinyin : Lǎozǐ; Wade-Giles : Laosi ; also Lao Tse , Lao-Tzu , Laotze , Lao Zi , Laocius , and other variations) was a philosopher of ancient China and is a central figure in Taoism (also spelled "Daoism"). Laozi literally means "Old Master" and is generally considered an honorific. 老子 （ 中国 ： 老子 ; 拼音 ： Lǎozǐ ; 韦德-吉尔斯 ： Laosi ;还老子 ， 老子 ， Laotze ， 老子 ， Laocius ，和其他变化）是一个哲学家的古老 中国 ，是一个中心人物道教 （还阐述“道教” ） 。 老子字面上的意思是“老夫子” ，并普遍认为是一种荣誉。 Laozi is revered as a god in religious forms of Taoism. Taishang Laojun is a title for Laozi in the Taoist religion, which refers to him as "One of the Three Pure Ones ".老子是尊崇作为上帝的宗教形式的道教。 台商老君是一个标题为老子在道教宗教，这是指他为“一个三纯一 ” 。
According to Chinese tradition, Laozi lived in the 6th century BC.根据中国传统，老子生活在公元前6世纪。
Historians variously contend that Laozi is a synthesis of multiple historical figures, that he is a mythical figure, or that he actually lived in the 4th century BC, concurrent with the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Period . [ 1 ](should be Spring and Autumn Period) A central figure in Chinese culture , both nobility and common people claim Laozi in their lineage. Zhuangzi , widely considered the intellectual and spiritual successor of Laozi, had a notable impact on Chinese literature, culture and spirituality.历史学家认为，不同老子是合成多个历史人物，他是一个神话般的人物，或者说，他实际上生活在公元前4世纪，并行与百家争鸣的战国时代 。 [ 1 ]的中心人物中华文化 ，这两个贵族和普通百姓索赔老子的血统。 庄子 ，普遍认为，智力和精神继承老子，有显着影响的华文文学，文化和精神。
Throughout history, Laozi's work was embraced by various anti-authoritarian movements.纵观历史，老子的工作是接受各种反独裁运动。
Contents目录
[hide]
1 History 1 历史
2 Names 2 名
3 Daodejing 3 Daodejing
4 Daoism 4 道教
5 Yinxi 5 银
6 Influence 6 影响
7 Footnotes 7 注
8 References 8 参考

History  历史
Taoism道教    
    
Fundamentals基本面    
Dao (Tao) · De (Te) · Wuji · Taiji · 道（道 ） 德（德 ） 无极 太极    
Yin-Yang · Wu xing · Qi · Neidan · 阴阳 五行 齐 Neidan    
Wu wei 吴炜    
Texts文本    
Laozi (Tao Te Ching) · 老子（道德经 ）    
Zhuangzi · Liezi · Daozang 庄子 列子 Daozang    
Deities神    
Three Pure Ones · Yu Huang · 三个纯一 谷呼盎    
Guan Shengdi · Eight Immortals · 关弟 八仙    
Yellow Emperor · Xiwangmu · 黄帝 Xiwangmu    
Jade Emperor · Chang'e · 玉皇嫦娥    
Other deities 其他神    
People 人们    
Laozi · Zhuangzi · 老子 庄子    
Zhang Daoling · Zhang Jiao · 张Daoling 章机傲    
Ge Hong · Chen Tuan 葛红 陈突埯    
Schools学校    
Tianshi Dao · 天师道    
Shangqing · Lingbao · 上清 灵宝    
Quanzhen Dao · Zhengyi Dao · 全真教道 正义道    
Wuliupai Wuliupai    
Sacred sites圣地    
Grotto-heavens 石窟，天    
Mount Penglai 蓬莱山    

Taoism Portal 道教门户
Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), though its authorship has been debated throughout history. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]老子是历来被视为作者的Daodejing （陶特青） ，但其作者已辩论整个历史。 [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
The earliest reliable reference (circa 100 BC) to Laozi is found in the Records of the Grand Historian ( Shiji ) by Chinese historian Sima Qian (ca. 145–86 BC), which combines three stories.最早的可靠参考（大约100年） ，以老子被发现在该史记 （ 世纪 ）的中国史学家司马迁 （约公元前145-86 ） ，它结合了三个故事。
In the first, Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius (551-479 BC).第一，老子被说成是当代的孔子 （公元前551-479 ） 。
His surname was Li ( 李 "plum"), and his personal name was Er ( 耳 "ear") or Dan ( 聃 "long ear").他的姓是李（ 李 “梅花” ） ，以及他个人的名字是呃（ 耳 “耳朵” ）或丹（ 聃 “长耳朵” ） 。
He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West.他是一个正式的帝国档案，并写了一本书分为两部分离开之前向西方。
In the second, Laozi was Lao Laizi ( 老來子 "Old Master"), also a contemporary of Confucius, who wrote a book in 15 parts.第二，老子是老挝Laizi （ 老来子 “老夫子” ） ，也有当代的孔子，谁写了一本书在15个部分。
In the third, Laozi was the Grand Historian and astrologer Lao Dan ( 老聃 "Old Long-ears"), who lived during the reign (384-362 BC) of Duke Xian (獻公) of Qin) . [ 5 ] [ 6 ]第三，老子是史记和占星家老挝丹（ 老聃 “老长耳朵” ） ，谁住时期（ 384-362年）的杜克大学西安（献公）的秦） 。 [ 5 ] [ 6 ]
Popular legends say that he was conceived (怀孕)when his mother gazed upon a falling star, stayed in the womb for sixty-two years, and was born when his mother leaned against a plum tree.热门传说说，他的构想时，他的母亲凝视一个陨星，停留在腹中的六二年，以及出生时，他的母亲靠在梅树。
He accordingly emerged a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, which are a symbol of wisdom and long life. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] In other versions he was reborn in some thirteen incarnations since the days of Fuxi ; in his last incarnation as Laozi he lived to nine hundred and ninety years, and traveled to India to reveal the Dao. [ 9 ]因此，他出现了增长男子全灰色的胡须和长期耳垂，这是智慧的象征，使用寿命长。 [ 7 ] [ 8 ]在其他版本，他在一些重生的化身，因为13天的伏羲 ;在他的上化身为老子他住到九百九十零年，并前往印度透露道。 [ 9 ]
According to popular traditional biographies, he worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou .根据流行的传统的传记，他担任门将档案的皇家法院周 。
This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time.据说这使他广泛地获取工作的黄帝和其他经典的时间。
The stories[ assert] that Laozi never opened a formal school, but he nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples.故事[说]，老子从来没有开设了正规的学校，但他仍然吸引了大批学生和忠实的门徒。
There are numerous variations of a story  depicting Confucius consulting Laozi about rituals. [ 10 ] [ 11 ]有许多变化的一个故事描绘孔子咨询老子约仪式。 [ 10 ] [ 11 ]
According to legends, Laozi leaves China on his water buffalo . [ 12 ]据传说，老子离开中国，他水牛 。 [ 12 ]
Many of the popular accounts say that Laozi married and had a son named Zong, who became a celebrated soldier.许多受欢迎的帐户说，老子结婚并生了一个儿子命名为宗，谁成为庆祝士兵。
A large number of people trace their lineage back to Laozi, as the emperors of the Tang Dynasty did.许多人追查其谱系回到老子，作为皇帝的唐代没有。
According to Simpkins & Simpkins, many (if not all) of the lineages may be inaccurate.据辛普金斯＆辛普金斯，许多（如果不是全部的话）的谱系可能不准确。
However, they are a testament to the impact of Laozi on Chinese culture. [ 13 ]然而，他们证明了老子的影响，对中华文化。 [ 13 ]
Traditional accounts state that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of city life and noted the kingdom's decline.传统的账户状态老子增长厌倦道德败坏城市生活，并指出国的下降。
According to these legends, he ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 160.根据这些传说，他大胆西作为一个生活在不稳定的隐士前沿的年龄为160 。 At the western gate of the city, or kingdom, he was recognized by a guard.在西区门的城市，或英国，他是公认的一名警卫。 The sentry asked the old master to produce a record of his wisdom.该哨兵问老师傅制作的记录他的智慧。 This is the legendary origin of the Daodejing .这是传奇起源Daodejing 。 In some versions of the tale, the sentry is so touched by the work that he leaves with Laozi to never be seen again.在某些版本的故事，是如此的哨兵所感动，他的工作与老子留下来永远不会再次出现。 Some legends elaborate further that the "Old Master" was the teacher of the Buddha , or the Buddha himself. [ 14 ] [ 15 ]有些传说进一步阐述说， “老夫子”是教师的佛像 ，或佛本人。 [ 14 ] [ 15 ]
By the mid-twentieth century, a consensus had emerged among scholars that the historicity of Laozi was doubtful or unprovable and that the Daodejing was "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands originating in the 4th century BC." [ 16 ] Alan Watts (1975) held that this view was part of an academic fashion for skepticism about historical spiritual and religious figures, arguing that not enough would be known for years, or possibly ever, to make a firm judgment. [ 17 ]到二十世纪中叶，已经出现一致意见，学者之间的历史性老子是怀疑或unprovable而且Daodejing是“汇编道教说法，许多双手原产于公元前4世纪。 ” [ 16 ] 阿兰瓦 （ 1975年）认为，这种看法是一个学术时尚的怀疑精神的历史和宗教人士，认为没有足够的将称为多年，或可能以往任何时候都作出坚定的判断。 [ 17 ]
Names  名称
Laozi is an honorific title. Lao means "venerable" or "old". Zi , or tzu , means "master". 老子是一种尊称。 老挝的意思是“可敬的”或“旧” 。 訾 ，或字 ，意思是“师父” 。 Zi was used in ancient China like a social prefix, indicating "Master", or "Sir".自是我国古代用于像一个社会前缀，表示“师父” ，或“先生” 。 In popular biographies, Laozi's given name was Er, his surname was Li (forming Li Er, 李 耳 ) and his courtesy name was Boyang.在流行的传记，老子的名字是呃，他的姓是李（形成栗儿， 李耳 ）和他的礼貌名称是鄱阳湖。 Dan is a posthumous name given to Laozi, and he is sometimes referred to as Li Dan ( 李 聃 ). [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ]丹是一个谥给老子，他有时被称为黎耷嗯（ 李 聃 ） 。 [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ]
During the Tang Dynasty , he was honoured as an ancestor of the dynasty after Daoists drew a connection between the dynasty's family name of Li and Laozi's bearing of the same name.在唐代 ，他很荣幸作为祖先的时期后，道家提请之间的联系王朝的姓氏李和老子的轴承同名。 He was granted the title Taishang xuanyuan huangdi , meaning "Supreme Mysterious and Primordial Emperor". Xuanyuan and Huangdi are also, respectively, the personal and proper names of the Yellow Emperor . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ]他被授予该称号台商轩辕黄帝 ，意思是“神秘的原始大皇帝” 。 轩辕和黄帝还分别在个人和适当的名称， 黄帝 。 [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ]
[ edit ] Daodejing [ 编辑 ] Daodejing
See also: Tao Te Ching , Tao , and Wu wei另见： 陶特青 ， 道 ，和吴炜
Laozi's magnum opus , the Daodejing , is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony .老子的大作品 ，在Daodejing ，是其中一项最重要的论文中宇宙 。
{As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm.与大多数其他古代哲学家老子往往解释他的想法矛盾的方式，类比，拨款古老谚语，重复，对称，押韵，和节奏。}
The Daodejing , often called simply the Laozi after its reputed author, describes the Dao (or Tao) as the mystical source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things.该Daodejing ，通常被称为只是老子知名作家后，介绍了道（或道） ，作为神秘的来源和理想的所有存在：它是看不见的，但不能超越，功能强大，超级巨大的谦卑，是一切事物的根源。
According to the Daodejing , humans have no special place within the Dao, being just one of its many ("ten thousand") manifestations.据Daodejing ，人类没有任何特殊的地方内的道，只是其中的许多（ “一万” ）的表现。 People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature).人的欲望和自由意志（从而能够改变自己的性质） 。
Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Dao.许多法“人为地” ，破坏了自然平衡的道。
The Daodejing intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Dao. [ 24 ] Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Daodejing打算在引导学生以“重返”的自然状态，在和谐与道。 [ 24 ]语言和传统观念的批判性评估。
Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point. [ 25 ]道教意见他们固有的偏见和人为的，广泛使用的矛盾，以尖锐的问题。 [ 25 ]

我还会有修改以后，总体上还行

See also 另见
Glossary of probability and statistics 词汇的概率统计
List of academic statistical associations 名单学术统计协会
List of basic statistics topics 名单基本统计专题
List of national and international statistical services 名单的国家和国际统计服务
List of publications in statistics 出版物清单统计
List of statistical packages 统计软件包列表
List of statistical topics 统计课题名单
List of statisticians 统计人员名单
Notation in probability and statistics 符号的概率统计
    Forecasting 预测
Foundations of statistics 基础统计
Multivariate statistics 多元统计
Official statistics 官方统计数据
Regression analysis 回归分析
Statistical consultants 统计顾问
Statistician 统计员
Structural equation modeling 结构方程模型
    

Notes 注意
^ Moses, Lincoln E. Think and Explain with statistics , pp. ^摩西，林肯体育思考和解释与统计 ，页。 1 - 3. 1 - 3 。 Addison-Wesley, 1986.艾迪，韦斯利， 1986年。
^ Anderson, , DR; Sweeney, DJ; Williams, TA. Statistics: Concepts and Applications , pp. ^安德森，梁智;斯威尼，金大中;威廉姆斯，电讯管理局局长。 统计：概念和应用 ，页。 5 - 9. 5 - 9 。 West Publishing Company, 1986.西方出版公司， 1986年。
^ "Statistics" . Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary . http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/statistics . ^ “统计” 。 韦氏在线词典 。 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/statistics 。
^ "Statistic" . Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary . http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/statistic . ^ “统计” 。 韦氏在线词典 。 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/statistic 。
    This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding reliable references (ideally, using inline citations ).本文需要额外引用的核查 。请帮助改善本文加入可靠的参考资料 （理想的情况下，使用内置引文 ） 。 Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (September 2008) Unsourced材料可挑战和删除 。 （ 2008年9月）    

References 参考资料
Best, Joel (2001). Damned Lies and Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians, and Activists . 最好的，乔尔（ 2001年） 。 该死的谎言和统计数据：解开数字媒体，政治家和活动家 。 University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21978-3 . 加利福尼亚大学出版社。 书号0-520-21978-3 。
Desrosières, Alain (2004). The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning . Desrosières ，阿兰 （ 2004年） 。 政治大数：历史的统计推理 。 Trans. 横贯。 Camille Naish. 卡米耶奈什。 Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-68932-1 . 哈佛大学出版社。 书号0-674-68932-1 。
Hacking, Ian (1990). The Taming of Chance . 乱砍，伊恩 （ 1990年） 。 该驯服的机会 。 Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-38884-8 . 剑桥大学出版社。 书号0-521-38884-8 。
Lindley, DV (1985). Making Decisions (2nd ed. ed.). 林德利，摄像机 （ 1985年） 。 决策 （第2版。版。 ） 。 John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-90808-8 . John Wiley ＆ Sons 出版。 书号0-471-90808-8 。
Tijms, Henk (2004). Understanding Probability: Chance Rules in Everyday life . Tijms ，汉（ 2004年） 。 理解概率：机遇规则在日常生活中 。 Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83329-9 . 剑桥大学出版社。 书号0-521-83329-9 。

[ edit ] External links [ 编辑 ] 外部链接
    Statistics portal 统计门户网站    
Find more about Statistics on Wikipedia's sister projects :寻找更多关于统计上维基百科的姊妹项目 ：
Definitions from Wiktionary 定义从维基词典
Textbooks from Wikibooks 教科书出自  Quotations from Wikiquote 引文出自维基语录  Source texts from Wikisource 源文本由维基  Images and media from Commons 图像和媒体从商品  News stories from Wikinews 新闻故事维基
Learning resources from Wikiversity 学习资源来自维基

[ edit ] Online non-commercial textbooks [ 编辑 ] 在线非商业教科书
"A New View of Statistics" , by Will G. Hopkins, AUT University “的新视角统计” ，由威尔湾霍普金斯， 奥地利大学
"NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods" , by US National Institute of Standards and Technology and SEMATECH “研究院/半导体制造技术的电子手册的统计方法” ，由美国国家标准与技术研究所和半导体制造技术
"Online Statistics: An Interactive Multimedia Course of Study" , by David Lane, Joan Lu, Camille Peres, Emily Zitek, et al. “在线统计：交互式多媒体课件的研究” ，由大卫巷，琼路，卡米耶佩雷斯，刘慧卿Zitek ，等。
"The Little Handbook of Statistical Practice" , by Gerard E. Dallal , Tufts University “小手册的统计惯例” ，由热拉尔东火箭 ， 塔夫茨大学
"StatSoft Electronic Textbook" , by StatSoft “ StatSoft电子教材” ，由StatSoft

[ edit ] Other non-commercial resources [ 编辑 ] 其他非商业资源
Free Statistics (free and open source software, data, and tutorials) 免费统计（自由和开放源码软件，数据和教程）
Probability Web ( Carleton College ) 概率网络 （ 卡尔顿学院 ）
Resources for Teaching and Learning about Probability and Statistics ( ERIC ) 资源用于教学和学习概率统计 （ 爱立信 ）
Rice Virtual Lab in Statistics ( Rice University ) 赖斯虚拟实验室统计 （ 莱斯大学 ）
Statistical Science Web ( University of Melbourne ) 统计科学网站 （ 墨尔本大学 ）
Statlib: Data, Software and News ( Carnegie Mellon University ) Statlib ：数据，软件和新闻 （ 卡内基梅隆大学 ）
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Major fields of mathematics 主要领域的数学    
    
Arithmetic · Logic · Set theory · Category theory · Algebra ( elementary – linear – abstract ) · Number theory · Analysis ( calculus ) · Geometry · Trigonometry · Topology · Dynamical systems · Combinatorics · Game theory · Information theory · Optimization · Computation · Probability · Statistics · Mathematical biology · Mathematical physics 算术 逻辑 集理论 分类理论 代数 （ 小学 - 线性 - 摘要 ） 数理论 分析 （ 微积分 ） 几何 三角 拓扑 动力系统 组合 博弈论 信息理论 优化 计算 概率 统计 数学生物学 数学物理
    
    

    
    
Design of experiments 实验设计    Population • Sampling • Stratified sampling • Replication • Blocking 人口 • 采样 • 分层抽样 • 复制 • 阻塞    
    
Sample size estimation 样本大小的估计    Null hypothesis • Alternative hypothesis • Type I and Type II errors • Statistical power • Effect size • Standard error 零假设 • 替代假说 • Type I和Type II的错误 • 统计功率 • 影响大小 • 标准误差    
    
Descriptive statistics 描述性统计    Continuous data 连续数据    Location 位置    Mean ( Arithmetic , Geometric , Harmonic ) • Median • Mode 平均 （ 算术 ， 几何 ， 谐波 ） • 中 • 模式    
    
Dispersion 色散    Range • Standard deviation • Coefficient of variation • Percentile 范围 • 标准偏差 • 变异系数 • 百分    
    
Moments 矩    Variance • Semivariance • Skewness • Kurtosis 差异 • 半方差 • 偏斜 • 峭度    
    
    
Categorical data 分类数据    Frequency • Contingency table 频率 • 应急表    
    
        
    
Inferential statistics 统计推断    Bayesian inference • Frequentist inference • Hypothesis testing • Significance • P-value • Interval estimation • Confidence interval • Meta-analysis 贝叶斯推理 • Frequentist推理 • 假设检验 • 意义 • P值 • 区间估计 • 置信区间 • Meta分析    
    
General estimation一般估计    Bayesian estimator • Maximum likelihood • Method of moments • Minimum distance • Maximum spacing Bayes估计 • 最大似然 • 矩量法 • 最小距离 • 最大间距    
    
Specific tests具体测试    Z-test (normal) • Student's t-test • Chi-square test • F-test • Sensitivity and specificity Z型试验（正常） • 学生t -检验 • 卡方检验 • F检验 • 敏感性和特异性    
    
Survival analysis 生存分析    Survival function • Kaplan-Meier • Logrank test • Failure rate • Proportional hazards models 生存函数 • 卡普兰，迈尔 • 对数秩检验 • 故障率 • 比例风险模型    
    
Correlation 相关    Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient • Rank correlation ( Spearman's rho , Kendall's tau ) • Confounding variable 皮尔逊积差相关系数 • 等级相关 （ 斯皮尔曼的卢 ， 尔莫肯德尔的头 ） • 混杂变量    
    
Linear models 线性模型    General linear model • Generalized linear model • Analysis of variance • Analysis of covariance 一般线性模型 • 广义线性模型 • 方差分析 • 协方差分析    
    
Regression analysis 回归分析    Linear regression • Nonlinear regression • Nonparametric regression • Semiparametric regression • Logistic regression 线性回归 • 非线性回归 • 非参数回归 • 半参数回归 • Logistic回归    
    
Statistical graphics 统计图形    Bar chart • Biplot • Box plot • Control chart • Forest plot • Histogram • QQ plot • Run chart • Scatter plot • Stemplot 条形图 • 双标图 • 盒阴谋 • 控制图 • 森林阴谋 • 直方图 • 联系阴谋 • 运行图 • 散点图 • Stemplot    
    
History 历史    History of statistics • Founders of statistics • Timeline of probability and statistics 历史统计 • 创办的统计数字 • 时间轴的概率统计    
    
Publications出版物    Journals in statistics • Important publications 期刊统计 • 重要出版物    
    
Category • Portal • Topic outline • List of topics 分类 • 门 • 主题大纲 • 的议题清单    
    
Retrieved from " http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics "取自“ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics ”
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This article is about the field of statistics.本文是对统计领域的需要。 For statistics about Wikipedia , see Wikipedia:Statistics . 统计约百科 ，见维基百科：统计 。 For other uses, see Statistics (disambiguation) .作其他用途，见统计（解疑,消除模棱两可情况） 。
More probability density(概率密度) will be found the closer one gets to the expected ( mean ) value in a normal distribution .更多概率密度将找到一个得到更密切的预期（ 平均 ）值在正态分布 。
Statistics used in standardized testing assessment are shown.统计使用的标准化测试评估结果。 The scales include standard deviations , cumulative percentages, percentile equivalents(百分等同), Z-scores, T-scores, standard nines, and percentages in standard nines.该表包括标准偏差 ，累积百分比，百分等同的Z -分数， T型分数，标准 99.999和99.999 百分比标准。
Statistics is a mathematical science [ pertaining to(about&on)] the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data . [ 1 ] It also provides tools for prediction and forecasting based on data. 统计是数学科学有关收集，分析，解释或说明，并介绍了数据 。 [ 1 ]它还提供工具的预测和预报的基础上的数据。
It is applicable to a wide variety of academic disciplines , from the natural and social sciences to the humanities , government and business.它适用于各种学科 ，从自然和社会科学的人文 ，政府和企业。
Statistical methods can be used to summarize or describe a collection of data; this is called descriptive statistics .统计方法可以用来概括或描述一个收集数据;这就是所谓的描述性统计 。
In addition, patterns in the data may be modeled in a way that [accounts for ]randomness and uncertainty in the observations, and are then used to draw inferences about the process or population being studied; this is called inferential statistics .
此外，模式的数据可能被模仿的方式，占随机性和不确定性的意见，并随后用于举一反三的过程或正在研究的人口，这就是所谓的统计推断 。
Descriptive, and inferential statistics (aka predictive statistics) comprise (make up of)applied statistics . [ 2 ]描述性的，统计推断（又名预测的统计数据） ，包括适用的统计资料 。 [ 2 ]
There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics , which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.还有一个纪律要求数理统计 ，这是有关的理论基础的问题。
Moreover, there is a branch of statistics called exact statistics that is based on exact [probability statements.(概率报表)]此外，还有一个分支统计要求准确的统计数据为基础的确切概率报表。
The word statistics can either be singular or plural. [ 3 ] In its singular form, statistics refers to the mathematical science discussed in this article.这个词的统计可以是单一或复数。 [ 3 ]在其单数形式， 统计指数学科学本文中讨论。
In its plural form, statistics is the plural of the word statistic , which refers to a quantity (统计量)(such as a mean ) calculated from a set of data. [ 4 ]在其复数形式， 统计的是这个词的复数统计 ，这是指一定量（如平均值 ）计算出的一组数据。 [ 4 ]
历史
Main article: History of statistics主要文章： 历史统计

"Five men, Conring , Achenwall , Süssmilch , Graunt and Petty have been honored by different writers as the founder of statistics." claims one source (Willcox, Walter (1938) The Founder of Statistics . Review of the International Statistical Institute 5(4):321-328.) “五男， Conring ， Achenwall ， Süssmilch ， Graunt和佩蒂被评为不同作家的创始人统计。 ”索赔一个来源（ Willcox ，瓦尔特（ 1938年） 创办的统计 。审查国际统计学会第5 （ 4 ） :321 - 328 。 ）

Although it was originally thought that statistics were invented in 1662, new research indicates that statistics were actually discovered 6 years earlier.虽然原先以为的统计数字，在1662年发明，新的研究表明，实际的统计数字，是早期发现的6岁。
By the time he completed the Down Survey in 1656, William Petty had successfully invented statistics for the first time.的时候，他完成了唐氏调查在1656年，威廉配第已经成功地发明了统计首次。 In 1685 it was published as "Hiberniae Delineatio." [ citation needed ]这是在1685年出版的“ Hiberniae Delineatio 。 ” [ 引文需要 ]

Some scholars pinpoint (exactly point)the origin of statistics to 1662, with the publication of " Observations on the Bills of Mortality " by John Graunt .一些学者指出的起源统计数字， 1662年，出版的“ 观察票据的死亡率 ”的约翰Graunt 。
Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its stat- etymology .早期应用统计思想是围绕着国家的需求为基础的政策的人口和经济数据，因此其统计，词源 。 The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general.的范围，扩大统计学科在19世纪初，包括数据的收集和分析的一般。 Today, statistics is widely employed in government, business, and the natural and social sciences.今天，统计数据被广泛采用政府，企业，以及自然科学与社会科学。

Because of its [empirical ]roots and its applications, statistics is generally considered not to be a subfield of pure mathematics, but rather a distinct branch of applied mathematics.由于它的经验根及其应用，统计数据通常被认为是不是一个子集的纯数学，而是一个独特的分支应用数学。

Its mathematical foundations were laid in the 17th century with the development of probability theory by Pascal and Fermat .其数学奠定了基础在17世纪的发展， 概率论的帕斯卡和费马 。

Probability theory arose from the study of games(赌博) of chance.概率论的研究是由游戏的机会。 The method of least squares was first described by Carl Friedrich Gauss around 1794.在最小二乘法首次描述卡尔弗里德里希高斯在1794年。
The use of modern computers has expedited large-scale statistical computation, and has also made possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually.利用现代计算机加速了大规模的统计计算，也取得了新的可能方法，是不用实际的手动执行。

概况
    This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards .本节可能需要清理 ，以满足维基百科的质量标准 。    
In applying statistics to a scientific, industrial, or societal problem, it is necessary to begin with a process or population to be studied.在运用统计数据，以科学，工业，或社会问题，有必要开始一个进程或种群进行研究。
This might be a population of people in a country, of [crystal （水晶）grains（*比喻像谷物）] in a rock, or of goods manufactured by a particular factory during a given period.这可能是一个人口的人在一个国家，在晶粒的岩石，或生产的货物特别是工厂在一定时期内。
It may instead be a process observed at various times; data collected about this kind of "population" constitute what is called a time series .它可能是一个过程而不是在不同的时间观察;数据收集这样的“人口”构成所谓的时间序列 。
For practical reasons, rather than compiling data about an entire population, a chosen subset of the population, called a sample , is studied.
出于实际考虑，而不是数据编制整个人口，一个子集选择的人口，所谓的样品 ，进行了研究。
*population应该指的是全体或整体
Data are collected about the sample in an observational or experimental setting.数据的收集的样本中观测或实验设置。
The data are then subjected to statistical analysis, which serves two related purposes: description and inference.这些数据然后遭受的统计分析，因为这两个相关的目的：描述和推理。
Descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the data, either numerically or graphically, to describe the sample. 描述性统计可以用来总结数据，无论是数字或图形，描述了范例。
Examples of numerical descriptors include the mean and standard deviation for continuous data , such as height, and frequency and percentage for categorical data , such as race.数值描述的例子包括： 平均和标准偏差的连续数据 ，如身高，以及频率和百分比分类数据 ，如种族。
Inferential statistics is used to model patterns in the data,[ accounting for（占）] randomness and drawing inferences about the larger population. 统计推断是用来示范模式的数据，占随机性和借鉴推论有关的人口。
These inferences may take the form of answers to yes/no questions ( hypothesis testing ), estimates of numerical characteristics ( estimation ), descriptions of association ( correlation ), or modeling of relationships ( regression ).这些推论可能采取的形式回答是/否问题（ 假设检验 ） ，估计的数值特征（ 估计 ） ，说明协会（ 相关 ） ，或造型的关系（ 回归 ） 。 Other modeling techniques include ANOVA , time series , and data mining .其他建模方法包括方差分析 ， 时间序列和数据挖掘 。
“... “ ... it is only the manipulation of uncertainty that interests us.这仅仅是操纵的不确定性，我们的利益。 We are not concerned with the matter that is uncertain.我们不关心的问题是不确定的。 Thus we do not study the mechanism of rain; only whether it will rain.”因此，我们不学习的机制，雨，只有是否会下雨。 “
— Dennis Lindley , "The Philosophy of Statistics", The Statistician (2000). - 丹尼斯林德利 ， “统计的哲学” 的统计 （ 2000年） 。    
The concept of correlation is particularly noteworthy.相关的概念，尤其值得注意。
Statistical analysis of a data set may reveal that two variables (that is, two properties of the population under consideration) tend to vary together, as if they are connected.统计分析数据集可能会发现，两个变量（即两个属性的人口正在考虑）往往不同在一起，因为如果它们连接。
For example, a study of annual income and age of death among people might find that poor people tend to have shorter lives than affluent people.例如，一项研究年度的收入和年龄死亡的人可能会发现，穷人往往比富人更短的生命的人。
The two variables are said to be correlated (which is a positive correlation in this case).这两个变量的说是相关性（这是一个积极的相关性在这种情况下） 。
However, one cannot immediately infer the existence of a causal relationship between the two variables(See Correlation does not imply causation .) .然而，一个无法立即推断存在因果关系的两个变量。（见相关性并不意味着因果关系 。 ）
The correlated phenomena could be caused by a third, previously unconsidered phenomenon, called a lurking variable or confounding variable . 的相关现象可能造成的三分之一，先前未被考虑的现象，称为潜伏变量或混杂变量 。
If the sample is representative of the population, then inferences and conclusions made from the sample can be extended to the population as a whole.如果样本能够代表的人口，然后推论和结论，从样品可以推广到全体人民。
A major problem lies in determining the extent to which the chosen sample is representative.一个主要问题在于确定在何种程度上选择样本的代表性。
Statistics offers methods to estimate and correct for randomness in the sample and in the data collection procedure, as well as methods for designing robust experiments in the first place.统计资料提供的方法来估计和正确的随机性的抽样和数据收集程序，以及健全的方法，设计实验摆在首位。 (See experimental design .) （见实验设计 。 ）
The fundamental mathematical concept employed in understanding such randomness is probability . Mathematical statistics (also called statistical theory ) is the branch of applied mathematics that uses probability theory and analysis to examine the theoretical basis of statistics.基本的数学概念的理解，例如采用随机性的概率 。 数理统计 （也称为统计理论 ）是部门的应用数学 ，利用概率论与分析 ，研究的理论基础的统计数据。
The use of any statistical method is valid only when the system or population under consideration satisfies the basic mathematical assumptions of the method. Misuse of statistics can produce subtle but serious errors in description and interpretation — subtle in the sense that even experienced professionals sometimes make such errors, serious in the sense that they may affect, for instance, social policy, medical practice and the reliability of structures such as bridges.使用任何有效的统计方法是仅当系统或人口正在考虑满足基本的数学假设的方法。 滥用统计数字可以产生微妙的，但严重的错误的描述和解释-微妙的意义上，即使有经验的专业人员有时使这种错误，严重的意义上说，可能会影响，例如，社会政策，医疗实践和结构的可靠性，如桥梁。
Even when statistics is correctly applied, the results can be difficult for the non-expert to interpret.即使在统计数据是正确适用，其结果可能是困难的非专家来解释。 For example, the statistical significance of a trend in the data, which measures the extent to which the trend could be caused by random variation in the sample, may not agree with one's intuitive sense of its significance.例如， 统计意义的一种趋势的数据，措施的程度，这种趋势可能是随机变化所造成的样品中，可能不同意一个人的直观意义上的意义。
The set of basic statistical skills (and skepticism) needed by people to deal with information in their everyday lives is referred to as statistical literacy .这套基本统计技巧（和怀疑）所需要的人来处理信息，在日常生活中被称为统计知识 。
Statistical methods  统计方法
Experimental and observational studies  实验和观测研究
A common goal for a statistical research project is to investigate causality , and in particular to draw a conclusion on the effect of changes in the values of predictors or independent variables on dependent variables or response.一个共同的目标的一项统计研究项目是调查的因果关系 ，特别是要得出一个结论：对变化的影响因素的价值观或独立变量对因变量或响应。
There are two major types of causal statistical studies: experimental studies and observational studies.主要有两种类型的因果关系的统计研究：实验研究和观察研究。 In both types of studies, the effect of differences of an independent variable (or variables) on the behavior of the dependent variable are observed.在两种类型的研究，对不同的一个独立的变量（或变量）的行为的变量得到遵守。 The difference between the two types lies in how the study is actually conducted.两者之间的差额类型在于如何进行实际研究。 Each can be very effective.每个国家都非常有效。
An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements.涉及的实验研究的测量系统的研究，操纵系统，然后采取进一步的测量使用相同的程序，以确定是否操纵改变了价值观的测量。
In contrast, an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation.与此相反，一个观测研究不涉及实验操作。 Instead, data are gathered and correlations between predictors and response are investigated.相反，数据收集和相关性的预测和反应的影响。
An example of an experimental study is the famous Hawthorne studies , which attempted to test the changes to the working environment at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company.一个实例的实验研究是著名的霍桑研究 ，试图测试改变工作环境，在霍桑工厂的西方电气公司。 The researchers were interested in determining whether increased illumination would increase the productivity of the assembly line workers.研究人员有兴趣在确定是否将增加照明增加生产力的装配线工人。
The researchers first measured the productivity in the plant, then modified the illumination in an area of the plant and checked if the changes in illumination affected the productivity.研究人员首先测量了生产力的工厂，然后修改了照明领域中的植物和检查，如果光照变化影响生产力。
It turned out that the productivity indeed improved (under the experimental conditions).事实证明，生产率确实提高（在实验条件下） 。 However, the study is heavily criticized today for errors in experimental procedures, specifically for the lack of a control group and blindness .然而，这项研究是严厉批评错误，今天的实验程序，特别是缺乏一个对照组和失明 。
The Hawthorne effect refers to finding that an outcome (in this case worker productivity) change due to observation itself.在霍桑效应是指发现的结果（在这种情况下，工人的生产力）的变化，由于观测本身。 Those in the Hawthorn studies became more productive not because the lighting was changed but because they were being observed.那些在山楂研究变得更加富有成效，这倒不是因为照明改变，而是因为他们被发现。
An example of an observational study is a study which explores the correlation between smoking and lung cancer.一个例子，一个观测研究是研究，探讨了相关吸烟与肺癌之间。 This type of study typically uses a survey to collect observations about the area of interest and then performs statistical analysis.这种类型的研究通常使用的调查，收集意见，对感兴趣的领域，然后进行统计分析。
In this case, the researchers would collect observations of both smokers and non-smokers, perhaps through a case-control study , and then look for the number of cases of lung cancer in each group.在这种情况下，研究人员将收集的意见都吸烟者和非吸烟者，也许通过病例对照研究 ，然后查找案件的数目肺癌各组。
The basic steps of an experiment are;的基本步骤进行实验的;
Planning the research, including determining information sources, research subject selection, and ethical considerations for the proposed research and method.规划的研究，包括确定信息来源，研究课题的选择，和道德的考虑拟议的研究和方法。
Design of experiments , concentrating on the system model and the interaction of independent and dependent variables. 实验设计 ，集中于系统模型和互动的独立和依赖的变数。
Summarizing a collection of observations to feature their commonality by suppressing details. 总结收集意见 ，以他们的共性特征制止细节。 ( Descriptive statistics ) （ 描述性统计 ）
Reaching consensus about what the observations tell about the world being observed.什么达成一致的意见告诉有关世界得到遵守。 ( Statistical inference ) （ 统计推断 ）
Documenting / presenting the results of the study.记录/提出的研究结果。

[ edit ] Levels of measurement [ 编辑 ] 水平的测量
Main article: levels of measurement主要文章： 水平的测量
There are four types of measurements or levels of measurement or measurement scales used in statistics: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.有四种类型的测量或水平的测量或测量表用于统计：名义，有序，间隔和比率。
They have different degrees of usefulness in statistical research .他们有不同程度的有用的统计研究 。
Ratio measurements have both a zero value defined and the distances between different measurements defined; they provide the greatest flexibility in statistical methods that can be used for analyzing the data.比测量都为零界定和价值之间的距离不同的测量定义;他们提供了最大的灵活性，统计方法，可用于分析的数据。
Interval measurements have meaningful distances between measurements defined, but have no meaningful zero value defined (as in the case with IQ measurements or with temperature measurements in Fahrenheit ).间隔测量有意义之间的距离测量界定，但没有取得有意义的零值定义（如与智商测量或温度测量华氏 ） 。
Ordinal measurements have imprecise differences between consecutive(continuous) values, but have a meaningful order to those values.序测量不精确连续值之间的差异，但有一个有意义的，以这些价值观。
Nominal measurements have no meaningful [rank order ]among values.标称测量没有任何有意义的[排序]中的价值。
Since variables [conforming ]only to nominal or ordinal measurements cannot be reasonably measured numerically, sometimes they are called together as categorical variables, whereas ratio and interval measurements are grouped together as quantitative or continuous variables due to their numerical nature.自变量只是名义上[符合]或序测量不能合理测量数值，有时他们被称为作为绝对变量，而比率和间隔测量组合数量或连续变量的数值，由于其性质。
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[ edit ] Statistical techniques [ 编辑 ] 统计技术
Some well known statistical tests and procedures are:一些众所周知的统计测试和程序是：
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) 方差分析 （方差分析）
Chi-square test 卡方检验
Correlation 相关
Factor Analysis 因子分析
Mann-Whitney U 以Mann - Whitney ü
Mean Square Weighted Deviation MSWD 加权均方偏差MSWD
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient 皮尔逊积差相关系数
Regression analysis 回归分析
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient Spearman秩相关系数
Student's t-test 学生t -检验
Time Series Analysis 时间序列分析

Specialized disciplines  专门学科
Main article: List of fields of application of statistics主要文章： 名单的应用领域统计
Some fields of inquiry use applied statistics so extensively that they have specialized terminology .某些领域使用的调查统计，以便广泛应用，他们的专门术语 。 These disciplines include:这些学科包括：
Actuarial science 精算学
Applied information economics 应用信息经济学
Biostatistics 生物统计学
Bootstrap & Jackknife Resampling 引导和刀切重采样
Business statistics 商业统计
Chemometrics (for analysis of data from chemistry ) 化学计量学 （用于数据分析化学 ）
Data analysis 数据分析
Data mining (applying statistics and pattern recognition to discover knowledge from data) 数据挖掘 （应用统计和模式识别发现知识，数据）
Demography 人口统计
Economic statistics (Econometrics) 经济统计 （计量经济学）
Energy statistics 能源统计
Engineering statistics 工程统计
Epidemiology 流行病学
Geography and Geographic Information Systems , specifically in Spatial analysis 地理与地理信息系统 ，特别是在空间分析
Image processing 图像处理
Psychological statistics 心理统计
Quality 质量
Reliability engineering 可靠性工程
Social statistics 社会统计
Statistical literacy 统计知识
Statistical modeling 统计建模
Statistical surveys 统计调查
Structured data analysis (statistics) 结构化数据分析（统计）
Survival analysis 生存分析
Statistics in various sports, particularly baseball and cricket统计各种体育，尤其是棒球和板球
Statistics  form a key basis tool in business and manufacturing as well.统计表格的一个关键的基础工具，在商业和制造业以及。
It is used to understand measurement systems variability, control processes (as in statistical process control or SPC), for summarizing data, and to make data-driven decisions.它是用来了解测量系统变异，控制程序（如在统计过程控制或计委） ，总结数据，使数据驱动的决策。
In these roles, it is a key tool, and perhaps the only reliable tool.在这些角色，这是一个重要工具，而且也许是唯一可靠的工具。
Statistical computing 统计计算


gretl is an example of an open source statistical package
gretl是一个例子，一个开放源码统计软件包
Main article: statistical computing主要文章： 统计计算
The rapid and sustained increases in computing power  starting from the second half of the 20th century  have had a substantial impact on the practice of statistical science.
快速和持续增长的计算能力，从今年下半年在20世纪有重大影响的做法，统计科学。
Early statistical models were almost always from the class of linear models , but powerful computers, coupled with suitable numerical algorithms , caused an increased interest in nonlinear models (such as neural networks ) as well as the creation of new types, such as generalised linear models and multilevel models .
早期的统计模型，几乎总是从一类线性模型 ，但强大的计算机，加上合适的数值算法 ，造成了更多的兴趣在非线性模型 （如神经网络 ） ，以及创造新的类型，如全身线性模型和多层次的模式 。
Increased computing power  has also led to  the growing popularity  of computationally-intensive methods based on resampling , such as [permutation ]tests and the bootstrap , while techniques such as Gibbs sampling have made use of Bayesian models more feasible(practical).
提高计算能力也导致了日益普及的计算密集的方法的基础上重采样 ，如[置换]试验和引导 ，而技术，如Gibbs抽样利用了贝叶斯模型更加可行。
The computer revolution has implications for the future of statistics with new emphasis on "experimental" and "empirical(practical)" statistics.
计算机革命对未来的影响的统计与新的重点放在“实验”和“实证”的统计资料。
A large number of both general and special purpose  statistical software are now available.大量的一般和特殊用途的统计软件 ，现已。

Misuse 滥用
Main article: Misuse of statistics
主要文章： 滥用统计
There is a general perception(thought&&impression)  that statistical knowledge is all-too-frequently intentionally misused        by finding ways  to [interpret ]only the data that are favorable to the presenter.
人们普遍认为，统计知识是太经常故意误用的调查方式来[解释]的数据，不仅有利于演讲。
(只说对---有利的数据)
A famous saying attributed to Benjamin Disraeli is, " There are three kinds of lies: lies, [damned] lies, and statistics ".
有句名言归咎于本杰明迪斯雷利是， “ 有三种谎言：谎言，该死的谎言和统计数字 。 ”
Harvard President Lawrence Lowell wrote in 1909 that statistics, "...like veal pies, are good if you know the person that made them, and are sure of the ingredients" .
哈佛总统继任者劳威尔写于1909年的统计数据， “ ...像小牛肉馅饼，是好的 ， 如果你知道的人 ， 使他们，并相信的成分 。 ”
If various studies appear to contradict one another, then the public may come to distrust such studies. 如果各项研究似乎相互矛盾，那么，公众可能会不信任这样的研究。
For example, one study may suggest that a given diet or activity raises blood pressure , while another may suggest that it lowers blood pressure.例如，一项研究表明，特定的饮食或活动引起的血压 ，而另一个可能表明，降低血压。
The discrepancy can arise from subtle (不明显)variations in experimental design, such as differences in the patient groups or research protocols, that are not easily understood by the non-expert.这种差异可能会出现微妙的变化，从实验设计，如不同的患者群体或研究协议，这是不容易理解的非专家。
(Media reports usually omit this vital contextual information entirely, because of its complexity.) （媒体报道通常省略这一重要背景资料完全，因为它的复杂性。 ）
By choosing (or rejecting, or modifying) a certain sample, results can be manipulated.选择（或拒绝，或修改）某些样品，结果被操纵。
Such manipulations need not be [malicious] or [devious]; they can arise from unintentional biases (prejudice)of the researcher.这种操纵不必恶意或不正当的;他们能够产生无意偏见的研究员。
The graphs used to summarize data can also be misleading.图表用来总结数据也可以使人产生误解。
Deeper criticisms come from the fact that the hypothesis testing approach, widely used and in many cases required by law or regulation, forces one hypothesis (the null hypothesis ) to be "favored", and can also seem to exaggerate the importance of minor (次要)differences in large studies.
更深的批评来自于这样一个事实，即假设检验的方法，广泛使用，在许多情况下，所需要的法律或法规，部队一个假设（的零假设 ）的“青睐” ，也似乎夸大的重要性，稍有差别，大量的研究。
A difference that is highly statistically significant can still be of no practical significance.阿差异具有高度统计学意义仍然可以没有任何实际意义。 (See criticism of hypothesis testing and controversy over the null hypothesis .) （见批评假设检验和争议的零假设 。 ）
One response is by giving a greater emphasis on the p -value than simply reporting whether a hypothesis is rejected at the given level of significance.一个反应是通过给予更大的重视p值不仅仅是报告是否假说被拒绝在一定水平的意义。 The p -value, however, does not indicate the size of the effect. 的 P -值，但并不表明的规模效应。
Another increasingly common approach is to report confidence intervals .另一种越来越常见的方法是，报告置信区间 。 Although these are produced from the same calculations as those of hypothesis tests or p -values, they describe both the size of the effect and the uncertainty surrounding it.虽然这些是由相同的计算的那些假设检验或 P -价值观，他们所描述的规模效应和它的不确定性。
Statistics applied to mathematics or the arts 统计应用数学或艺术
Traditionally, Statistics was concerned with [drawing inferences] using a [semi standardized methodology] that was required learning in most sciences.传统上，统计涉及绘画推论半标准化的使用方法，需要学习的最科学。
This has changed with use of Statistics in non-inferential contexts.这种情况已经改变了使用统计数字的非推理背景。 What was considered to be a [dry subject], taken only as a requirement for degrees in many fields, is now viewed enthusiastically.什么被认为是缺水问题，只能作为一个要求度在许多领域，现在是看热情。 What was derided by some mathematical purists is now considered essential methodology in some areas.什么是嘲笑一些数学纯化现在认为是至关重要的方法在某些领域。
Scatter plots of data generated by a [distribution function ] may be transformed with familiar tools used in Statistics to reveal [underlying patterns], which may lead to hypotheses in n[umber theory] .散点图产生的数据的分布函数可转化熟悉的工具来使用的统计显示基本形态，从而可能导致假设数论 。
Methods of Statistics including predictive methods in forecasting , are combined with chaos theory and fractal geometry to create video works considered to be of beauty.方法统计方法，包括预测预报 ，是结合混沌理论和分形几何创建的视频作品被认为是美丽。 The process art of Jackson Pollock relied on artistic experiments  whereby underlying distributions in nature were artistically revealed.该进程艺术的杰克逊波洛克依赖于艺术的实验，使潜在的分布性质的艺术发现。 With the advent of computers, methods of Statistics were applied to formalize such distribution driven natural processes, in order to make and analyze moving video art.随着计算机，统计方法适用于正式分配驱动等自然过程，以便使和分析移动视频艺术。
Methods of Statistics may be used predicatively, not inferentially in performance art , as in a card trick based on a [markov process] that only works some of the time, predicted using statistical methodology.
统计方法可用于predicatively ，而不是inferentially在表演艺术 ，如信用卡欺骗基于马尔可夫过程 ，只有一些作品的时间，预计使用的统计方法。
Statistics is used to predicatively create art, for example in applications of Statistical mechanics with the Statistical or Stochastic music invented by Iannis Xenakis , where the music is performance specific, and does not always come out as expected, but does within a range predicted using Statistics.
统计是用来predicatively创造的艺术，例如在应用统计力学与统计或随机音乐发明Iannis Xenakis ，那里的音乐表现具体，并不总是出来如预期，但预测的范围内使用统计。