The story of Buddha Shakyamuni

( The Tao is Tao, 29 )

The person mature in expression also knows that the right deed at the right moment, or the refusal to act is often worth more than a thousand words. The person who can silently walk away without retaliating when abuse is being thrown at her says more through her refusal to act than any words can say. Being a perfect example is still the most mature form of expression.

The secret to mature expression is to be at one with emptiness, where emotions and thoughts are under control, and where illusion, ambition and the ego do not exist.

The wisdom of the true mind (prajna) and meditation (dhyana) prevent stagnation. The author deliberately mentions dhyana here - the ability to discipline and control your mind, which is an important part of enlightenment. Wisdom and compassion are linked to a disciplined mind. Freedom and discipline are natural partners in a truly enlightened person.

22. 22 。 Enlightenment is possible for everyone

Not only can I take hold of complete enlightenment by myself,
But all Buddha-bodies, like sands of the Ganges,
Can become awakened in exactly the same way.

This passage represents a tremendous declaration. What it says is in fact that all people can become enlightened. No-one is barred from this. We are all "Buddha-bodies", that is we all carry "Buddha-nature" in us.

"Buddha-nature" is another effort to describe emptiness, or the true self. We may be different on the surface, but we are Buddha-bodies. A wise and compassionate nature is within us. We do not need to search for it in far-off places. We are it.

We only have to get rid of our illusions of permanence and the self, as well as our greed and ego, which form the basis of our ignorance, and we will "become awakened" from our world of illusions.

The humble man close to Tao
becomes less every day.
When he has lost himself completely,
only his true self remains.

( The Tao is Tao, 55 )

It is a process of becoming less in a worldly sense rather than becoming more. It is in many ways the opposite of what people normally understand by "development". Often it comes with an exacting price: the loss of prestige and status among your peers and other ambitious people who see your reduction of ego as a loss of "personality", ambition and flair. To the ambitious materialist, humility is an undesirable form of weakness.

Enlightenment is not gain;
it is the loss of everything dear.
Even wisdom and truth disappear
when only silence and emptiness remain.

( The Tao is Tao, 56 )

Is the price worth it? Stupid question. Of course it is.

23. 23 。 Few succeed

The incomparable lion-roar of doctrine
Shatters the brains of the one hundred kinds of elephants.
Even the king of elephants will run away, forgetting his pride;
Only the heavenly dragon listens calmly, with pure delight.

This delightful passage has an allegorical touch. What does "the lion-roar of doctrine" mean? The author is referring here to Hui-neng, his teacher, who was known as a wise man of great temperament. The doctrine of his master, which he is explicating in this poem, can only be accepted by the purest and the noblest and the most courageous, represented here by the "heavenly dragon". This doctrine, with its relentless renunciation of the ego, ambition and greed, is enough to scare and to "shatter the brains" of even the most powerful beasts, and the elephant is a symbol of strength of mind. In contrast to the king of elephants, who runs away "forgetting his pride", the heavenly dragon "listens calmly, with pure delight."

Isn't the author in a way contradicting what he says in the preceding lines, where he claims everyone can become enlightened? Here he is clearly showing that the exacting price one has to pay for enlightenment is something only very few people can accept. So even though we all carry the potential to become Buddhas, very few of us realize this potential. We are too attached to our illusions, too dedicated to our egos, too ignorant to be willing to pay the price.

24. 24 。 Zen - the essence is at peace

I wandered over rivers and seas, crossing mountains and streams
Visiting teachers, asking about the Way in personal interviews;
Since I recognized the Sixth Founding Teacher at Ts'ao Ch'i,
I know what is beyond the relativity of birth and death.
Walking is Zen, sitting is Zen;
Speaking or silent, active or quiet, the essence is at peace.
Even facing the sword of death, our mind is unmoved;
Even drinking poison, our mind is quiet.

This passage is beautiful and profound. In fact, I think it is one of the most beautiful passages in Zen literature.

The author at first describes how he has searched everywhere "asking about the Way", and how he has found enlightenment with the Sixth Founding Teacher, Hui-neng, who has taught him "what is beyond the relativity of birth and death."

The author now proceeds to describe Zen. What he says is clear. Nothing can touch the essence. When we live in silence and emptiness, in unity with the essence, nothing can shatter our peace and our tranquility. Not even facing destruction can move us.

This, then, is the reward. In lines preceding these, the author has described to us the price we have to pay to achieve Zen. His description of the reward of Zen in the last four lines is breathtaking. It is the definition of true power.

What becomes so clear in these lines is that Zen - true Zen - is part of life. It would be useless if you could reach unity with emptiness only in secluded monastic solitude. We need to be in contact with our real selves when we are out there in the real world, facing all the irritations and anxieties of life. Very few of us can afford the luxury of withdrawing from the stress of competitive life in an environment where the survival of the fittest is often the only norm. We need serenity in the heat of earning a living, or writing examinations, or facing financial difficulties, or when suffering the setbacks which can happen so abruptly in our modern world.

The poem is full of wonderful reassurance. The "essence is at peace", we are assured, no matter whether we are active or passive. It enables us to face the worst situations, even death, with serenity.

We cannot escape suffering, but Zen - being in harmony with the Tao - gives us the strength to face the inevitable with tranquility.

25. 25 。 Patience

Our teacher, Shakyumani, met Dipankara Buddha
And for many eons he trained as Kshanti, the ascetic.
Many births, many deaths;
I am serene in this cycle, - there is no end to it.

This passage emphasizes the aspect of patience. Development in character, and particularly in spirit, takes time. Enlightenment is not a sudden, total change of character and personality, in which a person has immediately vanquished all weaknesses and has become perfect. Enlightenment should be seen more as a change of direction. But, and it is a big BUT, it will still take a long time to get rid of all those bad habits, and to control and get rid of all negativity. It quite simply is not that easy.

Many people in the modern world want instant gratification without the effort that is essential if you want to reach anything. If they suffer from insomnia, they will not work on the causes of their sleeplessness, but they will suppress the symptoms with drugs. If they are emotionally down, they will not do something to cure this, but they will quite simply take alcohol or some pill to get rid of it instantly, in this way only increasing the real causes for their fits of depression.

Improving yourself is essentially a long-term project. According to legend, as the poem describes, it took the Buddha many lives to reach his perfection.

In a way, this thought must drive people, particularly those who do not believe in reincarnation, to despair. It should not. They should take heart from the last line of this passage: "I am serene in this cycle."

You should accept your limitations, and with patience and serenity fulfil your tasks in life. Once you worry too much about your own shortcomings, it is a certain sign that you have become too focused on yourself. Nothing could be worse than to try to satisfy the ego while trying to improve on a spiritual level. Live in harmony with the Tao, let your compassion be your guide, do not fret and worry about your own development, and you will move closer to the Tao. Remember: the emptiness and silence of Tao are a natural part of your true self. Emptiness seems to be far away, and yet it is close to you.

26. 26 。 Truly free

Since I abruptly realized the unborn,
I have had no reason for joy and sorrow
At any honor or disgrace.

Once you are in harmony with the Tao, honour and disgrace seize to matter to you. This is incredible. You have got rid of your ego to such an extent that your own reputation cannot touch you. What an incredible form of independence. You are beyond the influence of flattery or abuse. You are immune to praise and public forms of acclaim. The way people look at you cannot influence you positively or negatively in your resolve. You will not act to become popular, nor will you shut up because you are afraid of what others might say. You can think with great clarity, unimpeded by the shackles of your own vanity. You will even stand against the majority if you feel you have to, and you will not flinch, for disgrace does not touch you.

If I have ever read a definition of true power and freedom, this is it.

27. 27 。 Silence and beauty

I have entered the deep mountains to silence and beauty;
In a profound valley beneath high cliffs,
I sit under old pine trees.
Zazen in my rustic cottage
Is peaceful, lonely, and truly comfortable.

This is a beautiful metaphoric description of the peace you experience when you live in harmony with the Tao and everything around you.

These lines speak for themselves. I refuse to touch them.

28. 28 。 The direct way

When you truly awaken,
You have no formal merit.
In the multiplicity of the relative world,
You cannot find such freedom.
Self-centred merit brings the joy of heaven itself,
But it is like shooting an arrow at the sky;
When the force is exhausted, it falls to the earth,
And then everything goes wrong.
Why should this be better
Than the true way of the absolute,
Directly penetrating the ground of Tathagata?
Just take hold of the source
And never mind the branches.
It is like a treasure-moon
Enclosed in a beautiful emerald.
Now I understand this Mani-jewel
And my gain is the gain of everyone endlessly.
The moon shines on the river,
The wind blows through the pines, -
Whose providence is this long beautiful evening?
The Buddha-nature of morality
Is impressed on my mind,
And my robe is the dew, the fog, the cloud, and the mist.

What I find astounding about this passage is that it encourages us to give up our self-centered preoccupation with our own personal merit, which is often an effort to escape the inevitable forces of karma.

When you have come into total harmony with the Tao, you live beyond the "multiplicity of the relative world". You are truly free, for you have eliminated your preoccupation with your own merit and salvation. You have realized that serving your own merit is just serving your own self in a religious guise.

Even though achieving merit brings you "the joy of heaven itself", it is futile, even harmful, in the final instance, for then, the author warns us, "everything goes wrong."

It is easy to see why. The religious preoccupation with the self, often in the guise of a permanent "soul", is selfish. It is just another way of inflating the ego. It must go wrong.

The "true self" has no ego. You will only come into harmony with it if you get rid of the ego and your longing for personal merit. The "true way of the absolute" lies beyond ego and merit; beyond the idea of "I" and "me" and "mine".

The passage now calls on you to be more direct in your approach and to penetrate "the ground of the Tathagata", the true nature of a Buddha. There should be no selfish fooling around. You should "take hold of the source". This act, however, can only be a selfless one where the false self has been eliminated. Gone is your preoccupation with yourself: your "gain is the gain of everyone endlessly."

The person in harmony with the Tao does not really care about his own salvation. He is too busy caring about other beings. Doing good in order to go to heaven or to achieve Nirvana, as so many religious people do, is selfish, not good. The truly good person performs good deeds even if there is no reward at all. He would do good even if it means that he has to suffer for it.

The truly good person performs virtuous deeds because he is in total harmony with his own Buddha-nature. He cannot do anything else. When you "take hold of the source", you will discover that Buddha-nature is part of you. This incredible jewel is impressed on "the ground" of your mind, where it will grow and blossom as you become one with the universe, your robe being "the dew, the fog, the cloud, and the mist."

This passage is full of profound beauty.

It gives someone as imperfect as me courage, hope and faith.

29. 29 。 The gentle way

A bowl once calmed dragons
And a staff separated fighting tigers;
The rings on his staff jingle musically.
The form of these expressions is not to be taken lightly.
The treasure-staff of the Tathagata
Has left us traces to follow.

The first two lines refer to two incidences in Buddhist mythology. The first line refers to the legend that the Buddha once pacified dragons by miniaturizing them and putting them in his food bowl. The second line refers to a Zen master who once separated two ferocious tigers with his light staff, in this way preventing them from killing each other.

Both these incidences are so beautiful that even the sceptic could not else but wish they were true. They are pregnant with meaning, and could be interpreted in many ways.

What is similar about the two incidents is that in both cases incredibly little aggression is used to pacify forces of great power and destructive potential. One could argue that turning dragons into minute versions of themselves must have been quite a frightening experience for the dragons, but being the symbols of virtue that they are, they could only serve a good cause in the end. And we are sure the Buddha would never harm them.

In the second case, aggression is prevented from going its natural way. It is quite simply astounding that a single man could separate two alpha predators of such power and ferocity with a musical staff. Anyone who has had anything to do with tigers in their natural habitats would tell you that nobody could accomplish or survive this feat.

The two examples illustrate that spiritual development is clearly linked to the ability to make peace with the most peaceful means, or to tame wild and potentially destructive forces to such an extent that they become controllable.

The substance clearly lies in the style. It is not the pacification so much that is astounding. You can also pacify tigers by shooting them. It is the style in which it is done. Pacifying tigers in this way of course requires far greater courage than simply shooting them from an elephant's back, as so many "brave" hunters did in the nineteenth century. It is also the aim that turns the deed into a noble one. The master did not pacify the tigers to save his own life, but he risked his life to save theirs. He was gentle, compassionate and brave.

What should we call this way? It is the mild, gentle way to make peace. It is using the minimal amount of aggression to pacify and to turn the destructive into the virtuous. It is the way of least resistence to accomplish harmony and peace. It also entails tremendous courage and the kind of power only compassion can give you. It is the way of the Tao.

30. 30 。 Beyond truth and delusion

The awakened one does not seek truth -
Does not cut off delusion.
Truth and delusion are both vacant and without form,
But this no-form is neither empty nor not empty;
It is the truly real form of the Tathatagata.

This passage claims that someone moving close to the Tao is not concerned with finding truth, nor getting rid of delusion.

Is this kind of detachment supposed to be virtuous? How could a virtuous person not be concerned about truth? What is the author telling us?

It is simple. The truly enlightened person knows truth and its opposite, delusion, are both part of the illusion of living in a dualistic world.

The truly enlightened person lives in this world, and yet he has entered emptiness, where truth and delusion do not matter. He lives in close harmony with his own Buddha-nature, and therefore he lives a life beyond laws, rules, emotions and concepts. He lives as if truth does not exist, yet he lives in spontaneous, unconscious harmony with the truth. Delusion does not exist, for he sees things as they are, and not the way desire and greed would like him to see them. The true nature that he embraces is part of the absolute and is "neither empty nor not empty".

The enlightened person lives with incredible freedom, unhampered by the anxieties of people struggling to find truth or fighting delusion. His freedom is remarkable, for it is the freedom of a person who lives so much in harmony with the Tao that truth is an unconscious part of him, and delusion is quite simply not a possibility.

31. 31 。 The clear mirror

The mind-mirror is clear, so there are no obstacles.
Its brilliance illuminates the universe
To the depths in every grain of sand.
Multitudinous things of the cosmos
Are all reflected in the mind,
And this full clarity is beyond inner and outer.

The image of the mind being like a mirror is often used in Zen. The mind-mirror referred to here is the state of being in perfect harmony with the Tao. The state of mind when you are close to the Tao is one of great clarity. There is nothing to contaminate the mirror. All thoughts and emotions, which influence the way you see things, have come to rest, and in this silence and emptiness, you see things without distortion as they are. Not only do you see things as they are, but the mind "illuminates the universe" so that you truly understand in a spiritual sense everything to "the depths and in every grain of sand."

As you come into total harmony with everything around you, you reach a profound understanding beyond the intellect.

It is ironic, isn't it? Our intellectual effort to understand the world mostly separates us from the world. It is only when we have entered the spiritual sphere - where we have given up the intellectual effort to divide and to separate - that we can reach a true understanding of things around us.

You have probably experienced this in many ways. In the Biology class, they can dissect a cat and name and count its parts, but when they are finished, they could not be further removed from it. It is only when you forget the differences between you and a cat, and when you ignore the artificial categories you have learnt, that you will ever come close to a cat and really understand it. A cat named Fred lived with me for fifteen years. Long before his death he had ceased being a cat to me, for he had turned into a companion who understood me better than I understood him. He ignored the differences between us, and he taught me to look at him in the same way.

The same is true for all things:

I see my reflection
in印第安纳州
every particle of dust.
Even the mountain has my face.
The bird ruffles my feathers
and the spider spins my web.
Who can sense the loneliness of a parrot in a cage?
Who can feel the slow passion of a snail?
Only the true sage in total harmony with the Tao.

( The Tao is Tao, 96 )

This clarity of a mind in total harmony with the universe is the essence of wisdom and compassion. It is enlightenment.

32. Leaping into the fire

To live in nothingness is to ignore cause and effect;
This chaos leads only to disaster.
The one who clings to vacancy, rejecting the world of things,
Escapes from drowning but leaps into fire.

When one becomes fascinated by the concept of emptiness, one is easily tempted to use it as an escape from the realities of life. The author warns us against this in the first two lines. Living "in nothingness" and ignoring "cause and effect" can only lead to disaster.

The word "nothingness" is interesting. It pinpoints a mistake many people make. They equate "emptiness" with "nothingness". "Nothingness" is negative, even nihilistic. It is an effort to close your eyes to reality. This can only lead to "chaos".

The movement towards the Tao is not an escape from the realities and challenges of the world. The true Taoist sage has the power to move in the world while he is in full harmony with the Tao. He does not need total isolation and a permanent retreat to find harmony.

Using spiritual life as an escape from your obligations and duties can have dire consequences, as the text points out graphically in the last two lines.

The reason for this is obvious. In an effort to understand and explain, we tend to fall prey to the idea that the spiritual world is really separate from the material world. We tend to forget that this separation does not exist. The spiritual and material are one and the same thing. Their separation is a mental act. We separate them with the discriminatory tools of our intellect. In reality, there is no separation. Trying to escape the material world through the spirit is probably the greatest delusion of all. We are in this world, which is simultaneously spirit and material. You cannot escape the one or the other. Materialists try to escape the world of the spirit by totally immersing themselves in materialism. This is also delusionist, and, likewise, can only lead to chaos and disaster, as we so often witness in our industrialist, consumer orientated society today. It is truly escaping drowning only to be consumed by fire.

33. Skillful lies

Holding truth and rejecting delusion -
These are but skillful lies.
Students who do Zazen by such lies
Love thievery in their own children.
They miss the Dharma-treasure;
They lose accumulated power;
And this disaster follows upon dualistic thinking.

This passage clearly points out that the search for truth is hypocritical if you refuse to abandon your dualistic thinking. Rejecting delusion while clinging to your own ego has nothing to do with spiritual development. In plain words: you cannot be filled with self-grandeur and simultaneously develop on a spiritual plain. You cannot develop in a spiritual sense if you do not abandon those emotions that trap you in a discriminatory world of materialism and greed.

The author does not mince his words here. He declares that people who feign religiosity and practice dualistic thinking on a quasi-spiritual level, are living "skillful lies." These people, who live a materialistic life but claim to be truthful and free of delusion, love "thievery in their own children." The author clearly has a very low opinion of this kind of hypocrisy.

This kind of people, the author assures us, will never reach enlightenment and will lose all spiritual power they might have had.

The author seems to be very harsh, but it is clear why. What he is emphasizing is that there is no way of being in harmony with truth unless you are in harmony with the Tao. You must first enter emptiness and silence and come into harmony with your true self before you can be at one with truth and totally free of delusion. Claims to the contrary by people who still serve their own egos are hypocritical and often deliberate lies.

I find this text relevant. When I look around me, I see these lies everywhere. Spiritual people bloated with ego, yet who claim they possess the truth - as if the truth could be ever be a possession. Ambitious, often corrupt clergy or monks who claim spiritual clarity. Religious people full of hatred and intolerance who claim to spread "the love of God".

Look around you. It's everywhere. The delusion that there is no delusion in a world of competitive cruelty. The untruth that there is truth where blatant materialism rules.

I understand the author's abhorrence. There is nothing more revolting than insincerity in religion.

Realizing truth is essentially a sincere and humble act, for you are confronted with your own emptiness, dispensability and insignificance. You have to perform a kind of suicide on your own self, ridding yourself of your ego and your hidden agendas.

And yet it is everything but nihilistic, for your new perspective gives life true meaning. You will live a full life as if you are part of the world, yet you will not be part of it.

34. Zen

So Zen is the complete realization of the mind,
The complete cutting off of delusion,
The power of wise vision penetrating directly to the unborn.
Students of vigorous will hold the sword of wisdom;
The prajna edge is a diamond flame.
It not only cuts off useless knowledge,
But also exterminates delusions.

The author is right. It is only when you reach Zen that truth is realized. In Zen - when one is in total unity with emptiness and beyond dualistic thinking - the cutting off of delusion is real. It is only then that you will develop the "wise vision" to "penetrate directly to the unborn."

Wisdom is therefore less a result of study - even though of course study could be of benefit - than a personal act. You reach wisdom only when delusion has been annihilated totally.

Delusion includes what the author sees as "useless knowledge".

Personally, I find this incredibly harsh. Does the author mean that knowledge should always be utilitarian? Is he saying knowledge may not be pursued for the sheer joy of it?

I think that would be jumping to conclusions. The author is referring to the kind of thought process where we often concentrate on "useless knowledge", and forget the essence. We have seen this in for example the many devious paths science has taken. Often science has concentrated on the parts and forgotten about the whole. Biologists have dissected lizards and taught us the body parts, but they have not come closer to the reality of the lizard - somehow, they could not put it together again. In fact, they have often distanced themselves even further from it. It is only in the last few years that many scientists have become aware that somewhere along the way they have lost sight of the whole. Some scientists are now struggling to regain a concept of the whole, discovering to their chagrin that the details are obscuring their view of the essence. We are living increasingly in a world of experts we as laymen cannot understand. Even more frighteningly, the experts themselves become idiot savants only able to grasp their own narrow disciplines. We are increasingly in need of minds that can establish an overview, but also with the capability of "penetrating directly to the unborn."

What the author is saying is that we have enough knowledge - what we need now is "the diamond edge" of wisdom.

35. Clouds of love

They roar with Dharma-thunder;
They strike the Dharma-drum;
They spread clouds of love, and pour ambrosial rain.
Their giant footsteps nourish limitless beings;
Sravaka, Pratyeka, Bodhisattva - all are enlightened;
Five kinds of human nature are emancipated.

The author describes in glowing terms and with vivid imagery the effect that people living in harmony with Tao have on the world of the spirit.

When I first read this passage, I found the picture disturbing. The students with "vigorous will" seem too loud and too filled with missionary zeal for my liking. Some commentators of this passage also warn against pride and its insidious effects, and against many so-called Zen masters who feel they have some divine right to direct the lives of others.

Yet I feel obligated to defend this passage, for it is quite simply true that no matter how humble and unobtrusive many of these people in close harmony with the Tao may have been, it is not to be denied that they have had a tremendous effect on the lives of many people. Just think of the humble Lao Tzu. It could truly be said that he "spread clouds of love" through his writing.

I think the basic mistake one could easily make here is to think that to be loud and rash is to be effective and successful. This could be true for politicians fighting for the favour of a gullible and naive nation. It is not true, however, on the spiritual level. Showing off has a perverting effect on religion. A particular religion might recruit many followers through a show of ceremony, opulence and splendour, but in the process it would destroy much of the spiritual quality the religion might have had.

It is just as basic a mistake to think that someone quietly working in obscurity will not have any spiritual effect on the world. This assumption is based on ignorance. The Tao needs no pompous publicity campaigns. We carry the Tao in us, and it is part of everything around us. We can "spread clouds of love" and "pour ambrosial rain" even if we work and die in total obscurity. There is no way to quantify the effect of living in harmony with the Tao. True spiritual effect cannot be expressed in "so many souls saved", as some missionaries grandly claim. Spectacle and ritual are no proof of spiritual effect.

It is probable that the greatest spiritual leaders may be totally unknown to us, for they may have lived truly humble lives in total obscurity. Would the fact that we did not know about them be a loss or a waste?

No, of course not. The Tao cannot be "lost" or "wasted". How can we lose something we cannot possess, and waste something we cannot use?

Of course, it is quite possible that twisted ideas of prominence may prevent us from recognizing a true Taoist sage when we see one. As the author has stressed in this poem, there is no way you will recognize him or her by outward appearance. One thing is sure. He/she is not going to proclaim to you either through outward signs or language that he/she is a sage. He/she most probably will not even know he/she is one.

As has been said so often. "It takes a Buddha to recognize a Buddha." Yet when Buddhas recognizes each other, they will be too humble to call each other anything else but friends.

36. Total harmony, complete insight

High in the Himalayas, only fei-ni grass grows.
Here cows produce pure and delicious milk,
And this food I continually enjoy.
One universal Dharma encloses all Dharmas.
One moon is reflected in many waters;
All the water-moons are from the one moon.
The Dharma-body of all Buddhas has entered my own nature,
And my nature becomes one with the Tathagata.
One level completely contains all levels;
It is not matter, mind or activity.
In an instant eighty-thousand teachings are fulfilled;
In a twinkling the evil of eons is destroyed.
All categories are no category;
What relation have these to my insight?
Beyond praise, beyond blame,
Like space itself it has no bounds.

This passage is a beautiful description of complete harmony with the Tao which manifests itself in total harmony with nature. The metaphor used in the first three lines describes this harmony:

High in the Himalayas, only fei-ni grass grows.
Here cows produce pure and delicious milk,
And this food I continually enjoy.

It is like drinking the fresh, pure milk produced by cows eating fei-ni grass. This milk passes into your body when you drink it, and the wonderful properties of the grass now become part of you. In the same way,

One complete nature passes to all natures.

It is also a description of being in total unity with all things:

One universal Dharma encloses all Dharmas .

The following two lines represent one of the most popular metaphors in Ch'an or Zen:

One moon is reflected in many waters;
All the water-moons are from the one moon.

The moon is a symbol of constant change, yet it is also a symbol of the constancy of the cycles of change. It is the symbol of beauty and mystery and truth. In Buddhism, it is the symbol of the Dharma. This moon is reflected in all of us. We are all reflections of the same mystery, beauty and truth. Separateness is an illusion the way reflections of the moon in pools are illusions of separateness and permanence. This metaphor captures the magic of our fleeting, seeming existence as sentient beings, and the wonder and the beauty of our unity.

In the same way, our nature is not ours, it is not separate, but our nature is part of Tathagata - of Buddha nature.

The Dharma-body of all Buddhas has entered my own nature,
And my nature becomes one with the Tathagata.

We carry total perfection in us, and we are in total unity with it. This is a proclamation that, like all creation around us, we are intrinsically noble and good. This declaration is in direct contrast to the doctrines of some religions, which emphasize that we are "born in sin" and basically evil, and that we can only be "saved" by some external factor or force.

This is not the position of Zen, or Ch'an, or Taoism. According to the author, we are basically part of an all-pervasive Buddha nature, which is in everything that exists. Our salvation, and the power to succeed, lies in our own hands. What we need to do is get rid of delusion and eliminate our egos, and our separation from our true selves will disappear, and we will become one with the rest of the universe. Our separation is created by our own egos and is an illusion. Reality is total unity.

One level completely contains all levels;
It is not matter, mind or activity.
In an instant eighty-thousand teachings are fulfilled;
In a twinkling the evil of eons is destroyed.

The author points out here that this experience where "one level completely contains all levels" is not one of "matter, mind or activity." It is one of the spirit. And it happens "in an instant", "in a twinkling". At our moment of enlightenment, when we reach unity with our true nature, all teachings will be fulfilled and all evil in us will be destroyed. It is a tremendous moment which has a profound effect on our lives.

All categories will cease to have any influence on our insight:

All categories are no category;
What relation have these to my insight?

Our insight will have ceased to be narrow and judgmental, and will have become lateral and inclusive:

Beyond praise, beyond blame,
Like space itself it has no bounds.

37. Eternally serene

Right here it is eternally full and serene,
You cannot grasp it, you cannot reject it.
In the midst of not gaining,
In that condition you gain it.
It speaks in silence,
In silence you can hear it speak.
The great way has opened and there are no obstacles.

This is a description of the state of enlightenment. It is a state of fullness, where nothing can be added. It is therefore totally serene:

Right here it is eternally full and serene

All desire has stopped. You have stopped searching, for you know if you search, you will lose sight of it:

It is beyond your reach:

You cannot grasp it, you cannot reject it.

It is beyond your control. Your own feelings of acceptance and rejection have ceased to exist. You are in a state of non-desire and detachment, the only state of mind where you can become enlightened:

In the midst of not gaining,
In that condition you gain it.

It is in this state of mind that you discover the value of silence - when your emotions and thoughts have ceased to have any effect on you. It is like living in total silence, and yet in this silence, you will hear it speak.

The silence you experience is not a thoughtless state, but a state where you reach real insight. Your insights are reached in silence as well as in language:

It speaks in silence,
In silence you can hear it speak.

This is the ultimate state of mind:

The great way has opened and there are no obstacles.

38. The power of prajna

If someone asks, what is your sect
And how do you understand it?
I reply, the power of tremendous prajna.
People say it is positive;
People say it is negative;
But they do not know.
A smooth road, a rough road -
Even heaven cannot imagine.

The author's answer to the question which sect he belongs to, is of incredible scope:

I reply, the power of tremendous prajna

Prajna is the wisdom that comes to a mind filled with compassion and in total harmony with the Tao.

It is as simple as that. And as incredible. It is no formula. No doctrine. It is obvious and simple. It has none of the trappings of dogma with its complexities and doctrinal implications.

The author's answer is in the ancient tradition of Zen. Some Buddhist schools of thought have expressed doubt whether Zen is truly Buddhist, for Zen has always been trying to rid itself of the cultural forms and trappings which have little to do with the essence of Buddhism. Particularly Buddhist schools that are focused on outward form and ceremony would disapprove of Zen. Zen has always endeavoured to present a Buddhism as pure as possible and in step with the times. What mattered most to Hui-neng, who had such an influence on the development of Buddhism in China, was that Zen was something that was truly alive. Often he would act impulsively and rashly to get rid of trappings hampering people in their efforts.

The main purpose of Zen is to bring every individual into contact with Prajna, that tremendous spiritual force which lies latent in every single person on earth. It is through this Prajna that we are able to reach Enlightenment. Prajna is not mainly an intellectual process, even though the intellect does play a role, but it is mainly experiential and intuitive.

The author now refers to divided opinion about this path of Prajna.

People say it is positive;
People say it is negative;

They do not know what they are talking about, the author argues, because they have not experienced it:

But they do not know.
A smooth road, a rough road -
Even heaven cannot imagine.

It is clear. Not even heaven can imagine this road. This road is not one of theory and imagination. It can only be understood if you have experienced it. What is clear is that the road is both "smooth" and "rough". Spiritual development has smooth and rough spells. It is not for the faint-hearted.

Spiritual development is essentially experiential. It is not academic. Only when you take to the smooth and rough road will you find out.

39. Receiving the lamp

I have continued my zazen for many eons;
I do not say this to confuse you.
I raise the Dharma-banner and set forth our teaching;
It is the clear doctrine of the Buddha
Which I found with my teacher, Huineng,
Mahakashyapa became the Buddha-successor,
Received the lamp and passed it on.
Twenty-eight generations of teachers in India,
Then over seas and rivers to our land
Bodhi Dharma came as the first founder,
And his robe, as we all know, passed through six teachers here,
And how many generations to come may gain the path,
No one knows.

The author now confirms the tradition in which he stands. The first two lines should be understood in this light:

I have continued my zazen for many eons;
I do not say this to confuse you.

The author is part of a long tradition of many eons. He now carefully describes the lineage of Zen. Bhodi Dharma came from India and founded Zen, but Hui-neng really established it.

40. Natural sameness

The truth is not set forth;
The false is basically vacant.
Put both existence and non-existence aside,
Then even non-vacancy is vacant,
The twenty kinds of vacancy have no basis,
And the oneness of the Tathagata-being
Is naturally sameness.

The author argues here that our discrimination between truth and falsehood is based on illusion. The "truth" has not been captured in words yet, and what is supposed to be false has therefore also not been expressed in words:

The truth is not set forth;
The false is basically vacant.

The moment we stop discriminating between existence and non-existence, we will discover that even "non-vacancy" does not exist:

Put both existence and non-existence aside,
Then even non-vacancy is vacant.

Our ideas of emptiness and vacancy are inaccurate:

The twenty kinds of vacancy have no basis.

The true "oneness" to be found in emptiness - the "Tathagata-being", the true nature of Buddha - is beyond our artificial efforts to understand and explain: it is "naturally sameness". This "sameness" is the underlying law of all existence. We are part of it and have no choice. There is no separation from it.

This passage is very reassuring. What the author confirms is that alienation from the Tao is not possible. We are part of the natural "sameness" the way we are part of the law of gravity on earth. We can deny that gravity exists. We can pray to it. We can hate it. We can announce we are not part of it. We can claim we are in control of it. We can argue some beings are not part of it, or have more of it. Our beliefs do not touch or change the law of gravity. In the same way, the Tao cannot be influenced or changed. Yet, even though it is not touched by our beliefs, it nevertheless influences all of us.

There is a warning in the passage, too. The implication is clear. We cannot attain unity through artificial effort. It is only when we become natural that we will be able to discard those qualitites separating us from ourselves and the rest of the world. This aspect is dealt with in the next section of the passage.

41. Naturally genuine

Mind is the base, phenomena are dust;
Yet both are like a flaw in the mirror.
When the flaw is brushed aside,
The light begins to shine.
When both mind and phenomena are forgotten,
Then we become naturally genuine.

In the first line, the author subscribes to the idealist view: The basis of everything is the mind, material things are less real.

In his very next sentence, though, he announces that both mind and phenomena are "like a flaw in the mirror". This would be quite shocking to those who have put their hope in the mind. The mind, too, he says, distorts reality. It is like a flawed mirror. So, according to the author, even our minds keep us from experiencing true unity with the rest.

The author is unequivocal. Only

When the flaw is brushed aside,
The light begins to shine.

The author explains what he means by it:

When both mind and phenomena are forgotten,
Then we become naturally genuine.

I love the word "genuine". It must be amazing to be "naturally genuine". It is to be effortlessly sincere. But in a way, there is no other form of being genuine, is there? To be genuine is to be sincere in a natural way. This is only possible when you have reached full harmony with the Tao. And you can only be in full harmony with the Tao when "both mind and phenomena are forgotten". When you have ceased being aware of "I" and "they". When you are neither subject nor object, but have become a natural part of everything.

42. An invitation to hell

Ah, the degenerate materialistic world!
People are unhappy; they find self-control difficult.
In the centuries since Shakyumani, false views are deep,
Demons are strong, the Dharma is weak, disturbances are many.
People hear the Buddha's doctrine of immediacy,
And if they accept it, the demons will be crushed
As easily as a roofing tile.
But they cannot accept, what a pity!
Your mind is your source of action;
Your body is the agent of calamity;
No pity nor blame to anyone else.
If you don't seek an invitation to hell,
Never slander the Tathagata's true teaching.

The author is passionate in these lines. It is clear how strongly he feels about the materialism of the world which has confused people so much.

It is reminiscent of the tone and emotion of the words of despair uttered by the Buddha directly after his enlightenment, when he at first quailed at the thought of spreading the truth to people not ready for it:

This that through many toils I've won -
Enough! Why should I make it known
By folk with lust and hate consumed
Not this the Truth that can be grasped!
Against the stream of common thought,
Deep, subtle, difficult, delicate,
Unseen ‘twill be the passion's slaves
Cloaked in the murk of Ignorance.

It makes one think, doesn't it? Even the Buddha had difficulty facing "folk with lust and hate consumed". How do you teach people a way which is so "Deep, subtle, difficult, delicate" and "Against the stream of common thought"? The Buddha speaks of a world "Cloaked in the murk of Ignorance." Nothing seems to have changed since then. The Buddha's abhorrence is almost tangible. What a consolation to know that even the Buddha had difficulty facing society!

The author of the Shodoka obviously shared the same experience with the Buddha and us.

The passage is amazingly applicable to our modern world of profit and greed, which has made people so unhappy and without self-control.

Ah, the degenerate materialistic world!
People are unhappy; they find self-control difficult.

It is so true, isn't it? Where greed rules, self-control becomes difficult and people lose their grip as they are ruled by their own desires.

In the centuries since Shakyumani, false views are deep,
Demons are strong, the Dharma is weak, disturbances are many.

This materialism is based on "false views", the author tells us, which strengthen the "demons" of desire. In such an environment, the "Dharma is weak", ie the spirit has little influence on people, and for this reason "disturbances are many".

The solution could be so easy. People should accept the "Buddha's doctrine of immediacy", and all

... demons will be crushed
As easily as a roofing tile.

The author becomes very emotional when he ascertains that people are unable to accept the challenge:

But they cannot accept, what a pity!

Humanity alone is to blame for their failure to come into harmony with their own environment and find enlightenment, as the author clearly states:

Your mind is the source of all action;
Your body is the agent of calamity;
No pity nor blame to anyone else.

If you should blame external factors for your failure, for example say that it is the Buddha's teaching that has caused you to fail, you will be seeking an "invitation to hell".

If you don't seek an invitation to hell,
Never slander the Tathagata's true teaching.

Blaming others or external factors and not taking responsibility for your actions is the path to hell.

Particularly in Western society, we still have a real problem. We are willing to accept responsibility for our actions on a materialistic level, but we somehow believe that the same laws of cause and effect do not function on a spiritual level. You often see this with relationships. People will know that you have to work to reach anything on a materialistic level, but they believe successful relationships just happen, and that they work by chance. People will refuse to work on a relationship. If relationships fall apart, they will then apportion the major share of the blame to external factors. They will blame their in-laws, stress, their job, lack of time. On the spiritual level, you also reap what you have sown, and there is no escape.

We are the cause of our own misery, but, and this is a wonderful thought, we can also be the solution to our problems.

People, as the author laments, prefer to cling to illusions and materialism, and they refuse to accept the real solution, which lies within themselves. This is the root of their unhappiness and confusion.

43. Only the brave

In the sandalwood forest, there is no other tree.
Only the lion lives in such deep luxuriant woods,
Wandering freely in a state of peace.
Other animals and birds stay far away.
Just baby lions follow the parent,
And three-year-olds already roar loudly.
How can the jacka pursue the king of Dharma
Even with a hundred thousand demonic arts?

In this passage, the lion becomes the symbol of the enlightened spirit. The lion alone is able to live in the "deep luxuriant forests", a symbol of a state of enlightenment.

The description of life in the forest is beautiful:

Wandering freely in a state of peace.

I find this idea exhilarating, for it combines freedom with peace. In many religions, peace can only be reached if you give up your freedom and become bogged down by countless rules. Enlightenment in this context is a process of liberation which brings peace.

Freedom often brings with it the burden of being free, which is responsibility and duty, and its accompanying anxieties. In this case, freedom brings peace, but it does not mean that you do not need courage to accept this form of freedom. This is where the symbol of the lion comes in. The lion is a majestic being of tremendous courage and strength. What the author is clearly illustrating is that you need courage and strength to accept the challenge of living a life of enlightenment. Freedom and peace are only possible with a person of tremendous strength and courage.

The author emphasizes that "other animals", ie with less strength and courage, will stay away from the forest. No matter how many "demonic arts" you may control, if you lack courage, you will never become enlightened.

44. 44 。 Not a matter of emotion

The Buddha's doctrine of directness
Is not a matter for human emotion.
If you doubt this or feel uncertain,
Then you must discuss it with me.
This is not the free reign of a mountain monk's ego.

What the author emphasizes in this passage is that enlightenment is not about emotions.

This is difficult to understand in a world where religion has often become synonymous with whipping up emotions. Often people think they have to "feel" God to be close to him, and very confused people will think that feeling God is a proof of his existence. So they will see to it that they get feelings that will "prove" the existence of God to them. Many rituals are also expressly designed to create feelings - to give people a feeling of the presence of God.

This author is saying the opposite:

The Buddha's doctrine of directness
Is not a matter of human emotion

The author realizes that this might confuse people and he appeals to people to come and discuss this with him if they have feelings of doubt or uncertainty.

If you doubt this or feel uncertain,
Then you must discuss it with me.

In many ways, Zen tries to achieve the opposite of creating emotion to confirm beliefs. The criticism one could raise is that perhaps Zen does not deal sufficiently with human beings, who are, after all, creatures full of emotions and doubts.

The position of Zen is clear. You deal with emotions by accepting that they come and go, and by not clinging to them. It is only when you are not run by your emotions that you can really move freely. Your emotions only increase your vulnerability to external influences, which might confuse you even further. It is only in silence and emptiness, where you are liberated from thought and emotion, that you are truly free and at peace.

45. 45 。 Beyond permanence and extinction

I fear your training may lead to wrong views
Of permanent soul or complete extinction.
Being is not being; non-being is not non-being.
Miss this rule by a hair,
And you are off by a thousand miles.
Understanding it, the dragon-child abruptly attains Buddhahood;
Misunderstanding it, the greatest scholar falls into hell.

The author expresses his worst fears, namely that someone might start believing in either "permanent soul or complete extinction".

Both these doctrines, the author believes, will lead you terribly astray. The idea of permanence goes against the idea of emptiness. Likewise, the idea of emptiness has nothing to do with nihilism, the belief in "complete extinction". Both these ideas can be the core of ignorance, which is the root of all evil. The belief in permanence is the essence of egotism and selfishness. In the same way, nihilism also leads to confusion and lovelessness.

Compassion, true compassion linked to wisdom, can only be found when both permanence and nihilism are rejected.

Buddhism accepts neither permanence, nor extinction.

The author tries to explain what it means:

Being is not being; non-being is not non-being .

In the world of the spirit, where discriminations have ceased, there is no difference between being and non-being, life and death. All the categories we use in our rational world lose their meaning in the world of the spirit.

Haven't you experienced it yourself? Children often demonstrate this. Children, who often live a life of the spirit, hardly distinguish between animate and inanimate objects. To a little girl, her little doll is as alive as anything else on earth. Love can wipe out these distinctions too. You have probably heard the story of the widow who went to her husband's grave and covered it with her body during a particularly violent storm. In the world of the spirit, there is no distinction between the living and the dead.

Likewise, in the world of the spirit, fictional, symbolic characters may become as real as "real beings". To the person in total spiritual unity with nature, the mountains are alive and the rivers truly sing. In the spiritual world, there is no beginning and no end. People declare "eternal" love and live "happily ever after". It is not a world of fantasy, but it is as real, even more real, than the "objective world" of science and analysis.

If all that I have written in the previous paragraph should sound like sheer nonsense, then it is because you have not moved into the world beyond dualism yet.

Analytical thinking,
which divides and dissects,
does not satisfy the needs
of the spirit,
for the spirit finds peace
in unity,
which exists only
in emptiness,
where thinking has no influence.
To step into the realm of the spirit
is to abandon thinking.
Can you step over the precipice,
not knowing what is below?
Life starts this way.

( The Tao is Tao, 17 )

How important it is to understand this aspect is emphasized in no uncertain terms by the author:

Miss this rule by a hair,
And you are off by a thousand miles.

The author goes even one step further. The attainment of Buddhahood depends on understanding. Of course, by understanding the author does not mean on an intellectual level, for a non-dualistic world does not make sense on this level. Nor does the author mean that one should somehow make sense of the paradoxes involved. That would still be trying to understand things on a dualistic level. You cannot conjure up enlightenment through intellectual activity, no matter how fervent and sincere. It would be like chasing a feather with a fan.

The understanding the author is referring to is non-dualistic, intuitive, spiritual and experiential.

This experience of understanding is direct and immediate, but it often comes when you expect it least.

Enlightenment is so tantalizingly close, yet so far away.

46. 46 。 The untransferrable

From my youth I piled studies upon studies,
In sutras and sastras I searched and researched,
Classifying terms and forms, oblivious to fatigue.
I entered the sea to count the sands in vain
And then the Tathagata scolded me kindly
As I read "What profit in counting your neighbour's treasure?
My work had been scattered and entirely useless,
For years I was dust blown by the wind.

The author emphasizes the futility of trying to develop spiritually through study alone.

His moment of truth came when he read the lines: "What profit in counting your neighbour's treasure?"

He then realized he was trying to reach enlightenment through the experiences and insights of other people. Enlightenment is not transferrable, not even as knowledge, for enlightenment is not knowledge in the ordinary sense of the word. It is an "experience" you will have after you have gone your own way to reach it.

You cannot reach enlightenment only by studying other people's insights. You must reach your own insights through your own experience, and enlightenment will come when it comes.

47. 47 。 Seed-nature

If the seed-nature is wrong, misunderstandings arise.
And the Buddha's doctrine of immediacy cannot be attained.
Shravaka and Pratyeka students may study earnestly
But they lack aspiration.
Others may be clever,
But they lack prajna.
Stupid ones, childish ones,
They suppose there is something in an empty fist.
They mistake the pointing finger for the moon.
They are idle dreamers lost in form and sensation.

What the author is emphasizing in this passage is that enlightenment is only possible if the "seed-nature" is right. You will only find enlightenment if you have reached a certain level of spiritual development, ie only when there is no ego involved. It is only when you have penetrated to your true nature that you will become enlightened.

He then continues to show us different people at different stages of development aspiring to reach enlightenment. Some students lack "aspiration", ie they do not use what Buddhism calls "Right effort", which is more than just "earnest" effort. Other students may be clever, but they simply lack "prajna", ie wisdom.

The most stupid kind of student is the one concentrating on form and sensation. These are the students that would focus on dress, ornaments and rituals. They would "mistake the pointing finger for the moon." Often, they would worship people who are pointing the way rather than go the way themselves. They would honour the texts and the words pointing the way, and would think the words are the essence.

When I read the descriptions of the author, many people I have met came to my mind. Particularly the last category of people, who concentrate on the superficial, can be found in all religions.

The author's judgement on them is harsh:

They are idle dreamers lost in form and sensation.

Are these people then all without hope? No, of course not. Nobody is without hope, because we all carry Buddha-nature in us.

But we all tend to go through stages, depending on our insight, experience and age, don't we? Often we have to go along many erroneous routes before we reach the development where our "seed-nature" is right, and where we finally experience the "Buddha's doctrine of immediacy".

48. 48 。 Karma is empty

Not supposing something is the Tathagata.
This is truly called Kwan-Yin, the Bodhisattva sees freely.
When awakened we find karmic hindrances fundamentally empty.
But when not awakened, we must repay our debts.

You cannot search for the Tao, or your true nature, or emptiness. The moment you search for it, you will be looking for an object, which it is not, for it is absolute.

It is only when you realize that Buddha-nature is not an object you can search for, when you are "Not supposing that something is the Tathagata", that you will truly see "freely".

It is the core of Zen. Everything is empty. Form is illusion. Nothing really exists. Even "non-existence" does not exist.

When we are awakened in this way, we realize that even karma is empty, for it does not touch the essence, which is absolute and beyond its reach.

The author does not say or imply that the enlightened escape karma. Understanding the text in this way would be a grave mistake. What he is saying is that when you are not enlightened, you will not have awakened to the fact that karma might touch the world of form and sensation, but it does not touch your true self, which is emptiness, the essence, Buddha-nature. What he is saying is that when you are not enlightened, you will not have awakened to the fact that karma might touch the world of form and sensation, but it does not touch your true self, which is emptiness, the essence, Buddha-nature 。 Even when you are enlightened, you will be as much in the power of karma as the totally unenlightened person, but it will not really touch you on a spiritual level, for you will be aware that all things, even karma, are empty and of no real consequence.

The enlightened person suffers karma, but is free from it.

49. Surviving the fire

The hungry are served a king's repast,
And they cannot eat.
The sick meet the king of doctors;
Why don't they recover?
The practice of Zen in this greedy world -
This is the power of wise vision.
The lotus lives in the midst of the fire;
It is never destroyed.

Again, the author is bemoaning the fact that people refuse to accept the true way. They are hungry, yet they refuse the best of food; they are sick, and yet they cannot be cured by "the king of doctors" - a reference to the Tathagata.

The practice of Zen overcomes desire and greed, which cause so much sorrow and suffering.

In this life, which is a "fire" of desire and passion, only the lotus - the Buddhist symbol of purity and enlightenment - can survive.

50. Hope for all

Pradhanashura broke the gravest precepts;
But he went on to realize the unborn.
The Buddhahood he attained in that moment
Lives with us now in our time.
The incomparable lion roar of doctrine!
How sad that people are stubbornly ignorant;
Just knowing that crime blocks enlightenment,
Not seeing the secret of the Tathagata teaching.
Two monks were guilty of murder and carnality.
Their leader had the light of a glow-worm;
He just added to their guilt.
Vimalakirti cleared their doubts at once
As sunshine melts the frost and snow.

In this passage, the author gives a message of tremendous hope. In various examples, he points out that even people who have made grave errors have nevertheless reached enlightenment. He mentions the extreme example of two monks who were guilty of murder and sexual depravity who were brought to enlightenment by Vimalakirti

... at once
As sunshine melts the snow.

If even murderers are an instant away from enlightenment, then how close are we not to our true selves?

This passage is clear. No one is beyond help and hope. Mercy acquires a new meaning here. Even if you cannot escape karma, you can still attain enlightenment.

51. One vivid word

The remarkable power of emancipation
Works wonders innumerable as the sands of the Ganges.
To this we offer clothing, food, bedding, medicine.
Ten thousand pieces of gold are not sufficient;
Though you break your body
And your bones become powder, -
This is not enough for repayment.
One vivid word surpasses millions of years of practice.
The King of Dharma deserves our highest respect.
Tathagatas, innumerable as sands of the Ganges,
All prove this fact by attainment.

The author declares that the "remarkable power of emancipation" is worth more than all treasures on earth, even sacrificing your own body, for it

Works wonders innumerable as the sands of the Ganges.

This is a declaration of faith in the power of enlightenment, which is a form of liberation. Being emancipated from the things that hold you captive works "wonders" on a massive scale. The poet is speaking of incredible power. It is clear that this kind of liberation of the spirit is worth pursuing.

The author now makes a stupendous claim. Emancipation, being liberated from the illusions of samsara, is often the result of one "vivid word", which can surpass "millions of years of practice".

Is the author not exaggerating here? Is it possible for one single word to carry so much power? Are we not being warned continuously about putting too much faith in language?

What the author is emphasizing is what power the right word at the right moment can have. Words used at the wrong moments can be harmful, and should be avoided. But with the right timing, words can bring about enlightenment, as so many Zen stories illustrate.

But it takes someone in perfect harmony with the Tao to use words effectively. Someone with empathy, wisdom, compassion and perfect timing - a silent person who knows the value of patience and silence.

One single word can do it. It is not a matter of many words. Long arguments often achieve the opposite of what they are intended to.

"One vivid word" can be enough.

52. There is no Buddha

Now I know what the Mani-jewel is:
Those who believe this will gain it accordingly.
When we see truly, there is nothing at all.
There is no person; there is no Buddha.
Innumerable things of the universe
Are just bubbles on the sea.
Wise sages are all like flashes of lightning

This is probably one of the most provocative statements in Buddhism.

The author declares that

When we see truly, there is nothing at all.

Nothing exists:

There is no person; there is no Buddha.

No Buddha! Imagine telling a Christian there is no Christ, or a Muslim there is no Mohammed. Their whole religions hinge on this premise. Zen is unique, for it is based on Emptiness: nothing exists, not even Buddha.

Is Zen then still Buddhist? Of course it is, and yet it isn't. Zen is called Zen in a way the Tao is called Tao. It defies names and labels.

Many Christians are furtively trying to prove that Christ is indeed a historical character, as if the very existence of their faith depends on this. To the person in harmony with the Tao, historical authenticity is irrelevant. The Taoist accepts that nothing exists, not even the Tao, for the Tao is absolute and does not "exist" or "non-exist". The Tao is the underlying principle of everything. The example of the Law of Gravity illustrates this. It is irrelevant whether the scientist who formulated the Law of Gravity is an authentic historical character or not. Our "faith" in the Law of Gravity does not depend on this. It does not really matter whether Galileo or Newton really existed. Even if the story about the apple falling from the tree is fictional, it would not change the Law of Gravity, for you can personally test the law and find it to be true. Spiritual truths should not be treated differently than physical laws.

Once you have experienced enlightenment, the historical existence of any Buddha becomes irrelevant. In fact, it has been irrelevant from the start. The Buddha himself clearly pointed out that spiritual development is experiential. You have to find out for yourself. He warned against accepting anything because it is tradition, or because some person of authority has told you so, or because it is written in some authoritative text. You should only accept truth if you have personally tested it through your own experience, and have found it to be true. Blind adherence is the last thing you need on your road to enlightenment. In this context, historical authenticity becomes totally irrelevant. The only valid criteria are the evidence of your own spiritual experience.

The truly enlightened person realizes only emptiness exists, but even emptiness does not really exist, for something so absolute as emptiness or Buddha-nature cannot be said to exist or to non-exist.

The person, Buddha, Sakyumani, does not "exist", but even his essence, Buddha-nature, which is in all of us, is in fact beyond the dualistic, rational realm. Even Buddha-nature does not exist or not-exist. The person, Buddha, Sakyumani, does not "exist", but even his essence, Buddha-nature, which is in all of us, is in fact beyond the dualistic, rational realm. Even Buddha-nature does not exist or not-exist 。

Wise sages are all like flashes of lightning

This is a vivid metaphor to describe the effect of sages. They are as transient, and their appearances as fleeting as everything else's. Yet they are like lightning. They illuminate the darkness with tremendous power. They drive away ignorance with tremendous force.

Like a flash of lightning
illuminating the night sky,
one instant of enlightenment
once in a thousand years
will drive ignorance away.

The Tao has no power,
yet it is unconquerable.

( The Tao is Tao, 49 )

The author could not have been more emphatic about the power of Emptiness than this.

Emptiness is not "nothingness". It is the only "real thing".

It is the source of all power.

It is part of the Tao.

53. The power of truth

However the burning iron ring revolves around my head,
With bright completeness of dhjana and prajna
I never lose my equanimity.
If the sun becomes cold, and the moon hot,
Evil cannot shatter the truth.
The carriage of the elephant moves like a mountain,
How can the mantis block the road?
The great elephant does not loiter on the rabbit's path.
Great enlightenment is not concerned with details.
Don't belittle the sky by looking through a pipe.
If you still don't understand,
I will settle it with you.

The author's equanimity is based on his perfect faith:

If the sun becomes cold, and the moon hot,
Evil cannot shatter the truth

This is a declaration of unshakable faith in the power of truth over evil.

Truth is likened to an elephant. It is powerful and cannot be stopped by a mantis - the symbol of evil here.

The carriage of the elephant moves like a mountain,
How can the mantis block the road?

Truth does not preoccupy itself with insignificant paths which are a waste of time:

The great elephant does not loiter on the rabbit's path.

The last four lines of this incredible poem contain a warning and reflect the author's anxiety that, somehow, he still has not got his message across.

He warns against getting entangled in detail and losing sight of the whole:

Great enlightenment is not concerned with details.

He warns against tunnel vision, and losing perspective:

Don't belittle the sky by looking through a pipe.

We should never lose sight of the magnificent whole when concentrating on detail.

In the final two lines, he encourages his readers to come to him if they still do not understand:

If you still don't understand,
I will settle it with you.

It is a pity the author is not alive so that we can accept his invitation and speak to him personally.

And, yet, he is still alive, isn't he? We still hear his voice in this magnificent poem, in the tremendous spiritual wealth we have inherited from him, and in the wisdom of those who have followed in his footsteps.

http://translate.google.cn/translate?hl=zh-CN&sl=en&u=http://www.taoism.net/theway/shodoka.htm&ei=pLi3ScPzFJjC6gPi3_GfCQ&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=5&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3DShakya%2BTathagata%2Bshould%2Bmelt%2Bthe%2Bfact%26hl%3Dzh-CN%26sa%3DN%26start%3D10%26newwindow%3D1

Buddha and Buddhism
Siddartha Gautama
Buddha
Doctrine (Dharma)
Dhammapada
Questions of King Milinda
Community (Sangha)
This chapter has been published in the book INDIA & Southeast Asia to 1800.
For ordering information, please click here.

The oldest known date in the history of India is the death of the one called Buddha in 483 BC, and even that date is somewhat controversial. Buddha means "one who is intuitive, awakened, or enlightened." The famous historical person known as Buddha was also called the Tathagata, which means "the one who has come thus," and Shakyamuni, which means "the sage of the Shakya tribe." He is said to have lived eighty years, and thus was probably born in 563 BC.

Siddartha Gautama
His father Suddhodana of the Gautama clan was elected king of the Shakya tribe by its five hundred families just south of the Himalaya mountains in the realm of influence of the powerful Kosala monarchy. The son was born in the Lumbini garden and named Siddartha, which means "he who has accomplished his aim." Many myths and legends surround the birth of Siddartha, but most of these seem to have been developed centuries later in the Jatakas. A famous seer named Asita predicted that the child would either become a great king or, if he left home, a great teacher. His mother Maya died seven days after giving birth, and her younger sister Mahapajapati, who was also married to Suddhodana, became his foster mother.

By all accounts Siddartha was raised amid the finest luxuries of the time. Later he said that three palaces had been built for him - one for hot weather, one for cold, and one for the rainy season. His clothes were of the finest silk. When he walked on the grounds, someone held a white umbrella over his head. Even the servants were well fed, and music was played only by beautiful women.

Having demonstrated his skill in archery, Siddartha chose Yasodhara to be his wife, and they were married when he was about sixteen years old. For the next thirteen years he continued to live in luxury with his wife and concubines. Then about the time of the birth of his son Rahula, the famous four signs occurred. According to legend, his father had tried to prevent his princely son from experiencing any suffering or sorrow or religious contact so that he would become a king rather than a spiritual teacher.

However, one day while traveling outside the palace gates, Siddartha happened to come across an old man for the first time in his life. He was appalled at the wrinkles and decrepitude. On another occasion he happened to observe a sick person and learned about the loathsome nature of disease. The third sign came when he witnessed a funeral procession and was able to see the lifeless corpse that was being carried. The suddenness of these three experiences set him thinking about the transitoriness of human life. Finally he came upon a religious ascetic, who had renounced the world to seek enlightenment, a common occupation for Kshatriyas like himself as well as for Brahmins.

With the birth of his son he had fulfilled his obligation to continue his family line and decided that he too must renounce his kingdom and seek a way out of the human miseries of old age, sickness, and death. So he took off his silk garments and put on the coarse clothes of an ascetic and went south to Magadha seeking enlightenment.

While begging for his food in Rajagriha, the capital city of Magadha, his princely demeanor was observed by King Bimbisara (Shrenika). The king went to see Siddartha to find out who he was and what he was doing. Siddartha told him that he was purifying himself in order to achieve nirvana, and he promised to teach the king after he attained enlightenment.

Like the sages of the Upanishads, Siddartha practiced yoga and meditation. At Vaishali to learn meditative concentration he studied with Alara Kalama, who was said to have had hundreds of disciples. Siddartha soon learned how to reach the formless world, but still having mental anxieties he decided not to become a disciple of Alara Kalama. Nor did he become a disciple of his second teacher, Uddaka Ramaputra, after he attained the higher state of consciousness beyond thought and non-thought.

Still not satisfied, Siddartha decided to practice the path of extreme austerities, and in this quest he was joined by the sage Kaundinya and four others. He pressed his tongue against his palate to try to restrain his mind until the perspiration poured from his armpits. He restrained his breath and heard the violent sounds of wind in his ears and head. He went into trances, and some thought he was dead. He fasted for long periods of time and then decided to try limiting his food to the juice of beans and peas. As his flesh shrank, the bones almost stuck out of his skin so that he could touch his spine from the front; after sitting on the ground his imprint looked like a camel's footprint.

For six years Siddartha practiced such austerities, but instead of achieving superhuman knowledge and wisdom he only seemed to get weaker and weaker. Finally he thought that there might be a better way to attain enlightenment. He remembered how, while his father was working, he would sit in the shade of an apple tree free of sensual desires. Perhaps in concentrating his mind without evil ideas and sensual desires he should not be afraid of a happy state of mind. However, to gain the strength he felt he needed for this concentration he decided to start eating again. When he gave up practicing the extreme austerities, the five mendicants who were with him became disillusioned and left him, saying that Gautama lives in abundance and has given up striving.

Siddartha reasoned that a life of penance and pain was no better than a life of luxury and pleasure, because if penance on Earth is religion, then the heavenly reward for penance must be irreligion. If merit comes from purity of food, then deer should have the most merit. Those who practice asceticism without calming their passions are like a man trying to kindle fire by rubbing a stick on green wood in water, but those who have no desires or worldly attachments are like a man using a dry stick that ignites.

Regaining his strength from normal eating of the food he begged, Siddartha once again practiced meditation. Now he easily attained the first stage of joy and pleasure, then a joyful trance arising from concentration with serenity and the mind fixed on one point without reasoning and investigation. The third stage produced equanimity to joy and aversion in a mindful, happy state. In the fourth stage pleasure and pain were left behind in a mindful purity. With his mind thus concentrated and cleansed he directed it to the remembrance of former existences from previous births, also perceiving cycles of evolution and dissolution of the universe.

Then he directed his mind to the passing away and rebirth of beings, perceiving how the karma of evil actions, words, and thoughts leads to rebirth in miserable conditions and suffering in hell; but those beings leading good lives are reborn in a happy state in a heavenly world. Finally directing his mind to the means of ultimate release Siddartha realized that there is pain, a cause of pain, the cessation of pain, and a way that leads to that cessation of pain. Thus his mind was emancipated from sensual desires, the desire for existence, and ignorance.

According to legend this whole process occurred in one night after he had decided to sit under a tree until he became enlightened or died. It was also said that he was tested by Mara, the tempter, but Siddartha could not be swayed from his purpose. Thus darkness and ignorance were dispelled by the light as Siddartha Gautama became enlightened and was henceforth known as the Buddha.

Buddha
Having gained this doctrine, the Buddha thought how difficult it would be for humanity to understood because of their attachments and lust. Trying to teach it to them would be vexation for him. However, the god Brahma asked him to teach the doctrine, because some people, who were not too impure, were falling away from not hearing the teachings. Then the Buddha in pity for beings surveyed their conditions and saw some of little impurity whom he could teach. At first he thought of his former teachers Alara Kalama and Uddaka, but in his clairvoyant awareness he realized that both of them had just died in the last few days. Then he decided to teach the five mendicants who had been with him in their striving. Perceiving that they were in the deer park at Benares, he decided to go there.

Along the way he met an Ajivika ascetic named Upaka, who when told of the Buddha's enlightenment, merely said that he hoped that it was so and went his way. When the five mendicants saw Siddartha Gautama, they thought they would not rise in respect but would offer him a seat. However, as the Buddha arrived, they spontaneously greeted him as a friend. They still criticized him for living in abundance, but the Buddha explained that he does not live in abundance. He spoke to them as one enlightened, and they had to agree that he never had spoken to them in that manner before. While he admonished two of them, the other three went off to collect alms; then he spoke with those three while the other two went for alms. In this way all five soon attained insight and the supreme peace.

In this deer park at Benares the Buddha gave his first sermon in which he explained that the two extremes are not to be practiced by the one who is enlightened - what is joined with the passions and luxury which is low, vulgar, common, ignoble, and useless, nor what is joined with self-torture which is painful, ignoble, and useless too. Avoiding these two extremes the enlightened follow the middle path which produces insight and knowledge and leads to peace, wisdom, enlightenment, and nirvana. Buddha then expounded the four noble (aryan) truths of his doctrine.

Now this, monks, is the noble truth of pain:
birth is painful; old age is painful;
sickness is painful; death is painful;
sorrow, lamentation, dejection, and despair are painful.
Contact with unpleasant things is painful;
not getting what one wishes is painful.
In short the five groups of grasping are painful.

Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cause of pain:
the craving, which leads to rebirth,
combined with pleasure and lust,
finding pleasure here and there,
namely the craving for passion,
the craving for existence,
and the craving for non-existence.

Now this, monks, is the noble truth
of the cessation of pain:
the cessation without a remainder of craving,
the abandonment, forsaking, release, and non-attachment.

Now this, monks, is the noble truth
of the way that leads to the cessation of pain:
this is the noble eightfold way, namely,
correct understanding, correct intention,
correct speech, correct action, correct livelihood,
correct attention, correct concentration,
and correct meditation.1

The Buddha declared that Kaundinya had understood the doctrine, and he welcomed him as the first monk in the community by saying, "Come, monk, well proclaimed is the doctrine; lead a religious life for making a complete end of pain."2 After further instruction the other four mendicants were also admitted into the community (sangha). Then the Buddha preached to the five that the body, perceptions, feelings, the mind, and even discriminating consciousness are not the self or soul. By turning away from the body, perceptions, feelings, mind, and discriminating consciousness, one becomes free from craving and emancipated. Life then becomes religious and is no longer under finite conditions.

Yasa, the son of a wealthy guildmaster, lived in luxury at Benares, and like Siddhartha he became disgusted with his palace attendants. After hearing the Buddha's doctrine he left home and became the first lay disciple in the new community. The first women to become lay disciples were Yasa's mother and former wife. They were soon followed by four friends of Yasa and then fifty more. The Buddha then suggested that the sixty disciples wander around separately to preach the doctrine so that others may be liberated from the fetters of illusion, while he went to Uruvela in Magadha.

There thirty men of royal blood had entered the forest with their 29 wives and a courtesan for the one who was not married. When the courtesan ran off with their gold, silver, and gems, they all went to search for her and found the Buddha. He asked them if it was more important to seek for that woman or for themselves. When they agreed that their selves were more important, they sat down so that the Buddha could teach them how to seek within themselves.

Shakyamuni was sitting under a banyan tree when a Brahmin named Drona approached him in awe, asking if he was a god. The Tathagata said no. The Brahmin asked if he were a kind of nature spirit (gandharva or yaksha), but again the Buddha denied it. When he asked if he were a human, he denied that too. Finally Drona asked him if he was neither divine nor non-human nor human, then what was he? The reply was that he is Buddha (awake).

Shubha, a Brahmin student, asked the Buddha why humans differed so much in birth, intelligence, health, and so on. Shakyamuni explained that beings are heirs of karma, the consequences of their actions. Evildoers may experience happiness until their deeds ripen, and the good may experience bad things until their good deeds ripen. The pure and the impure create their own destinies; no one can purify another.

Also living in this region were three Brahmin brothers of the Kashyapa family. They were ascetics with matted hair over the age of seventy and were the most respected religious leaders in Magadha with a total of about one thousand disciples. The Buddha spoke with the oldest, Uruvilva Kashyapa, but it was difficult for him to accept that such a young man could be so holy. Finally the Buddha used his mystic powers, and convinced of the Buddha's superiority Uruvilva decided to follow him. The Buddha suggested that they ask his five hundred followers what they wanted to do, and they all decided to join as well, shaving their hair and beards and throwing their ceremonial utensils into the river. The two Kashyapa brothers saw the implements in the river and eventually joined as well with their disciples.

On the way to Rajagriha the Buddha and the thousand disciples saw the volcanic mountain Gayashirsa with its glowing fire. The Buddha preached his sermon on fire - how the sensations, perceptions, thoughts, and actions are burning with the poisons of covetousness, anger, and ignorance. At the capital he preached to King Bimbisara about the triple doctrine of charity, precepts, and good works. The king declared that all five of his wishes had been fulfilled - that he might be king, that a Buddha would come to his kingdom, that he would meet him, be instructed by him, and understand the teachings. After the sermon King Bimbisara donated a bamboo grove near the capital as a site for a monastery.

Also at Rajagriha lived the agnostic Sanjaya, who also had many disciples under two named Shariputra and Maudgalyayana, who were seeking enlightenment and a better teacher. Shariputra observed Assaji (one of the first five mendicants in the community) begging and learned of the Buddha's teachings. He told Maudgalyayana, and they told the two hundred fifty disciples of Sanjaya. Even though Sanjaya tried three times to stop them from going away, they all went to find the Buddha, who greeted them with the revelation that these two would become his greatest disciples. Within two weeks of joining the community both Shariputra and Maudgalyayana had become enlightened.

In meditating Maudgalyayana had trouble with drowsiness and falling asleep. The Buddha suggested several remedies including laying down for a while to sleep before resuming meditation. The uncle of Shariputra was a skeptic like Sanjaya and told the Buddha that he could not accept any conclusive doctrine. Shakyamuni simply asked him if he recognized his own doctrine as conclusive. Caught in self-contradiction, he realized the weakness and limitation of skeptical philosophy. Then the Buddha explained the law of causation in human life.

Having heard that his son had become a Buddha, King Suddhodana sent Udayin to invite Shakyamuni to the capital at Kapilavastu. Udayin was converted to the new religion, and Shakyamuni returned to his home town. His father criticized him for begging for food when he was rich enough to feed thousands of followers. Shakyamuni replied that mendicancy was the correct custom for his line, by which he meant the line of Buddhas. Verbal discussions were not enough to win over people who had known him as a boy; so the Buddha used his mystical powers to convince them.

Siddartha's half-brother Nanda was about to be declared crown prince and married to Sundari, the most beautiful woman in the kingdom, but he decided to join the community instead. However, he could not help thinking about Sundari; so the Buddha gave him a vision of hundreds of heavenly maidens, though this was later criticized by others as a wrong motivation for seeking enlightenment. Eventually Nanda repented of this motivation and asked the Buddha to dissolve his promise of these maidens, and Nanda attained enlightenment and became an arhat (a term meaning "worthy" or "honorable" used for disciples who attained the highest level of awareness).

Siddartha's son Rahula was also admitted to the community at the age of ten, but later a rule was made that minors under twenty could not join the community without permission from their parents. Many Shakya nobles also joined the community at this time (according to legend 80,000) including Ananda, Anuruddha, Devadatta, Bhaddiya, and Kimbila. On the way to Buddha they were accompanied by their barber and slave, Upali. They sent him back to Kapilavastu with their jewels, but afraid of the Shakyas' reaction, he put them on a tree and rejoined the five aristocrats. Upali, who was of the lowest caste, was ordained first giving him seniority over the nobles he had served so that their Shakya pride might be moderated. Like Mahavira, the Buddha taught in the ordinary language of the people rather than in the aristocratic Sanskrit.

Complaints that monks wandering around during the rainy season trampled the grass and destroyed living creatures led the Buddha to adopt the custom of staying in retreat during the three months of rain. After one of these retreats, a wealthy householder from Shravasti, who became known as Anathapindada ("Giver of alms to the unprotected"), confessed to the Buddha that he enjoyed his investing and business cares. Shakyamuni suggested that he be a lay disciple and continue his work and use it as a blessing for other people. So Anathapindada invited the Buddha to spend the next rainy season at Shravasti, the chief city in Kosala, where he purchased and built the Jetavana Monastery. Later when Anathapindada was dying of a painful illness, Shariputra went and taught him the mental concentration for the avoidance of pain usually only taught to monks; Anathapindada died in peace.

The Buddha liked the Jetavana Monastery to be quiet, for he once dismissed Yashoja and five hundred monks for talking too loudly after they arrived. However, they went to another place near Vaishali and made great spiritual gains. Later when the Buddha traveled to Vaishali, he noticed that the area was illuminated. He told Ananda to invite Yashoja and the five hundred monks to the hall with the peaked roof. When they arrived, the Buddha was sitting in silent meditation; they too joined him in silent concentration. Every few hours Ananda approached the Buddha to ask him to greet these monks, but Shakyamuni remained silent and in the morning told Ananda that if he understood meditation better, he would not have kept asking him to greet the monks, who were likewise sitting in immovable concentration.

A new monk once confessed to the Buddha for having eaten meat in his almsbowl, but the Buddha forgave those who ate meat that was not prepared for them. Their ethical principle was not to harm any living creature. Yet he criticized those who hunt and kill animals for sport and warned his followers not to accept any food from such blood-stained hands.

After Shakyamuni's father died as a lay disciple, he declared that a lay disciple, whose mind is free from the poisons of lust, attachment, false views, and ignorance, is no different than anyone else who is free. Fearing a famine, the Shakya warrior chiefs agitated for a war with the Kolyas over water rights to the Rohini River. The Kolyas had built a dike to conserve water; when they refused the Shakyas' demand to dismantle it, both sides prepared for war. Just before the battle was to begin, the Buddha spoke to both sides, asking them to compare the value of earth and water to the intrinsic value of people and the human blood they were about to spill. He told a parable about a decrepit demon, who fed on anger and took over a royal throne, becoming stronger as more anger was directed at him until the true king came and calmly offered to serve the throne, which led to the diminishment and disappearance of the anger demon. In this way the war was avoided.

Krisha Gautami was stricken with grief when her only son died. Unable to find a physician who could bring him back to life, someone suggested that she go to the Buddha. He told her to get a handful of mustard seed in the city, but it must be from a house where no one has ever lost a child, spouse, parent, or friend. Eventually she came to realize how common death was and put aside her selfish attachment to her child.

Prajapati, the aunt and foster mother of Shakyamuni, asked to be admitted to the community. With Ananda acting as intermediary, the Buddha established eight conditions for the admittance of nuns into the community. Nuns had to make obeisance to all the monks, even the newest, and nuns were not allowed to criticize a monk even though monks criticized nuns. Although they were not treated equally, at least women were allowed to join the community. The sexism was also apparent when the Buddha told Ananda that the religious life would only last five hundred years instead of a thousand because women had been admitted.

A legend tells how a disciple used magical power to get a sandalwood bowl that had been tied from the top of a bamboo pole as a kind of contest. When the Buddha heard of it, he forbade those in the community to use such magical powers and had the bowl broken up and used as perfume. He suggested that his disciples only gain adherents by the miracle of instruction.

In the ninth year after the enlightenment the Buddha was at Kaushambi, and the monk Malunkyaputra complained that the Buddha never explained whether the world is eternal or temporary, finite or infinite, or whether life and the body are the same or different, or whether arhats are beyond death or not. He even threatened to leave the community if the Buddha would not answer his questions. First the Buddha asked him if he had ever promised to explain these things; he had not.

Then he told the parable of a man who was pierced by a poisoned arrow, and his relatives summoned a doctor. Suppose, he said, the physician had said that he would not remove the arrow nor treat the patient until his questions had been answered, such as who made the bow, what kind it was, all about the arrow, and so on. The man would die, and still the information would not be known. Then the Buddha told Malunkyaputra that a person would come to the end of one's life before those metaphysical questions he had asked could be answered by the Tathagata. Those questions do not tend toward edification nor lead to supreme wisdom. However, the Buddha's teaching regarding suffering, its cause, and the means of ending it is like removing the poisoned arrow.

A conflict arose in the community when a monk who refused to admit he had committed an offense was expelled. Some complained that this violated their principle that only evil deeds committed with conscious intent are morally reprehensible. However, the Buddha declared that the two greatest ways to obtain demerit are not to ask forgiveness after committing a wrong and not to forgive one who has confessed and asked for forgiveness.

A Kalama nobleman from north of Kaushambi admitted that he had doubts because various teachers expressed contradictory views. The Buddha responded that he was wise not to believe everything but to question with reason and by experience. After thorough investigation whether the teachings are good, free from faults, praised by the noble, and when practiced lead to the welfare and happiness of oneself and other beings as well, then they may be accepted and lived.

At Asyapura they found Brahmin priests sacrificing horses, sheep, goats, cows, and other animals on bloody altars decorated with images of gods. The Buddha told his followers not to be deceived but to purify their hearts and cease to kill. They should not refuse to admit they are ascetics, who enjoy robes, bowl, bed, and medicine. In their simplified lives they learn how to calm their bodies and concentrate their minds to awaken the four religious qualities of loving friendship, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity. The Buddha also declared that in regard to this ascetic life all the castes are equal.

A monk named Sona in the Sitavana Monastery at Rajagriha was so zealous in walking that his feet left a bloody trail. The Buddha asked him if his lute could be played well if the strings were too tight or too loose. Just so, excessive zeal may make the mind weary and one's thoughts irritable and uncertain. He suggested to Sona that gradual progress led to self-mastery and happiness rather than anxiety.

A young Brahmin named Vakula was so infatuated with the Buddha that he continually kept him in his sight. The Buddha explained that the one who sees the dharma (doctrine) sees the Buddha, but Vakula still always remained in his presence. Finally at the end of the rainy season the Buddha asked him to go away. Realizing that Vakula was climbing Vulture Peak to commit suicide, Shakyamuni went after him and called him back lest he destroy the conditions for winning great fruit.

An ambitious disciple named Purna decided to spread the doctrine to the Shronaparantakas. The Buddha, knowing that they were a dangerous people, asked him what he would do if they insulted and abused him. Purna said he would consider them good and kind for not hitting him and throwing rocks at him. But what if they hit and throw rocks? Then he would be glad they did not use clubs and swords. If they used clubs and swords, he would be glad they did not kill him; even if they kill him, they will have delivered him from his vile body. So equipped with patience and love Purna went to the Shronaparantakas and was about to be killed by a hunting archer for fun, when the hunter was so struck by how willing this person was to die that he stopped and eventually accepted the three refuges of the Buddha, the doctrine, and the community.

Another monastery at Purvarama near Rajagriha was donated by Vishakha, the daughter of a rich man. Once at this monastery the Buddha remained silent on the moon day when the preaching service and confessions by the monks took place. Finally the Buddha said to Ananda that the assembly was not wholly pure. Maudgalyayana, perceiving who the immoral person was, asked him to leave; when he refused to leave three times, he was escorted out of the hall by the arm. The Tathagata thought it strange that he should wait until he was thrown out. Then the Buddha declared that he would no longer attend these sessions, but the monks would recite the regulations themselves.

When Shakyamuni was about 55, his personal attendant at the time, Nagasamala, insisted on taking a different road than the Buddha advised and was beaten by robbers. At the Shravasti Monastery the Buddha announced that he wanted to have a permanent attendant. Shariputra volunteered, but the Buddha said his work was teaching. Maudgalyayana and others were also rejected. Ananda remained silent, but Shakyamuni asked him if he would find it a bother. Ananda said that it would not be bothersome, but he did not consider himself worthy. Then he offered to do it on the following eight conditions: that he not have to accept gifts or alms given to the Buddha nor dwell in his chamber nor accept invitations offered only to him and that he may accompany the Perfect One when the monks are invited, that he may present him to those who come from a distance, that he may have access to him at all times, and that whatever teaching he missed by absence should be repeated to him by the Perfect One's own lips. The Buddha heartily agreed, and Ananda was his personal attendant for the rest of the Buddha's life.

Shakyamuni was able to tame a dangerous robber and admitted him into the community. He also bathed and treated a monk, who was suffering from dysentery and had been neglected by the other monks because he lay in his own excrement. On another occasion he found that a leper understood the doctrine very well as he explained that whatever has a beginning must have an end.

About 491 BC when Shayamuni was 72, a schism arose in the community, because his cousin Devadatta wanted to take over as head of the community; but Buddha refused, saying that he would not even turn it over to Shariputra or Maudgalyayana much less to a vile one to be vomited like spit. Devadatta became resentful and used his magical powers to win the favor of Prince Ajatashatru, the son of King Shrenika Bimbisara. They plotted together to take over the kingdom of Magadha and the Buddhist community. Bimbisara and the Buddha were to be murdered; but since Bimbisara turned over his kingdom to his son, he was merely put in prison. There he soon died, though chronicles stated he was killed by his son.

Hired killers were converted by the Buddha, but Devadatta tried to roll a huge boulder from Vulture Peak down upon him. However, only Shakyamuni's foot was scratched. Yet spilling the blood of a Tathagata with murderous intent created terrible karma for Devadatta. When he had learned of his intent, the Buddha had already declared that Devadatta's words and actions were not to be considered as representing the community in any way. Although he had gained a few followers, these were persuaded to return to the real community after long sermons by Shariputra and Maudgalyayana when Devadatta fell asleep after his own talk. Abandoned and with his psychic powers destroyed by his evil intentions, Devadatta soon became ill and died.

King Ajatashatru, who had also listened to Mahavira, was eventually converted by the Buddha; but his previous evil intentions and actions prevented him from attaining the enlightenment he might have achieved in that life. Ajatashatru married the daughter of the Kosala king Pasenadi, and Pasenadi's son married a maiden of the resentful Shakyas who was secretly of low birth. Her son, Vidudabha, swore revenge against the Shakyas. Pasenadi killed his powerful general and his sons, replacing them with the nephew Digha Karayana. While Pasenadi was listening to the Buddha, Digha hurried off and put Vidudabha on the throne. Pasenadi tried to get help from Ajatasatru but died of exposure on the way to Rajagriha.

Surveying the world, the Buddha became aware of Vidudabha's intention to attack the Shakyas and three times was able to convince him to turn back; but on the fourth time the Shakyas' karma for poisoning the river could not be averted, and they were massacred. Enough Shakyas remained, however, to accept a portion of Shakyamuni's relics after his death. When Shakyamuni was 79, both his chief disciples, Shariputra and Maudgalyayana, died. Shariputra died in the home where he was born, but Maudgalyayana was killed by robbers to balance karma from a former life.

At the age of eighty the vitality of the Tathagata's body seemed to diminish, and he declared that he had only three months to live. Ananda missed the opportunity to plead with him to stay until the end of the eon as Buddhas could do, and Ananda was later blamed for that by the community. Finally Shakyamuni took his last meal, ordering a smith named Cunda to give him some mushrooms (literally pig's food or pork) and give the monks other food and then bury the rest of the mushrooms. Sharp sickness arose with a flow of blood and deadly pains, but the Buddha mindfully controlled them and declared that he would die in the third watch of the night. He sent word that Cunda was not to feel remorse but consider this giving of alms of the greatest merit.

Ananda asked the Buddha how he was to act toward women. The Buddha advised him not to see them; but if he saw them, not to speak to them; but if speaking, to exercise mindfulness. Then he said his burial was to be handled by the local Kshatriyas. That evening Ananda brought the local families to say goodby, and then the Buddha answered the questions of an ascetic named Subhadda. Before going through the four stages of higher awareness into nirvana, the last words of the Buddha were, "Decay is inherent in all component things. Work out your salvation with diligence."3

Doctrine (Dharma)
Having taught for forty-five years from his enlightenment to his death, the Buddha left behind a large compendium of teachings that were memorized by various of his disciples. Since writing was a rarity then in India, they were passed on through the community until they were written down several centuries later. These earliest texts are in the common Pali language and usually are dialogs between the Buddha and others. Often the Buddha emphasized that it was more important for disciples to see the dharma (doctrine) than the Buddha, because the dharma would remain and was what they needed to practice to attain enlightenment and even afterward. The third refuge for the Buddhist was in the community (sangha) of monks and nuns.

The Buddha advised his followers not to feel ill will or get angry when others spoke against them, because this might disrupt their self-mastery and prevent them from being able to judge whether the criticism was valid or not. For the same reason they should not be overly glad when the doctrine is praised.

In regard to the moral precepts, the Buddha described himself as having put away the killing of living things, holding himself aloof from the destruction of life. Having laid aside weapons, he is ashamed of roughness and full of mercy, being compassionate and kind to all creatures. He does not take what has not been given, is chaste, and speaks truth being faithful and trustworthy, not breaking his word to the world. He has put away lying and slander and does not raise quarrels. Thus does he live:

as a binder together of those who are divided,
an encourager of those who are friends,
a peacemaker, a lover of peace, impassioned for peace,
a speaker of words that make for peace.4

In describing the fruits of living as a recluse the Buddha emphasized to King Ajatasatru the importance of mindfulness toward the ethical significance of every action and word. Then having mastered the moral precepts, restrained the senses, endowed with mindfulness and self-possession, filled with content, the recluse chooses a lonely and quiet spot to meditate in order to purify the mind of lusts, the wish to injure, ill temper, sloth, worry, irritability, wavering, and doubt.

At the end of this long dialog King Ajatasatru confessed his sin in putting to death his father and asked to be a disciple of the blessed one. The Buddha accepted his confession and noted that in the tradition of the noble ones' discipline whoever sees one's fault as a fault and correctly confesses it shall attain self-restraint in the future.

The Buddha was quite a penetrating psychologist and described the psychological causality that leads to suffering in his theory of pratitya-samutpada (dependent origination). Sorrow, lamentation, misery, grief, despair, old age, and death are all caused by birth, which depends on existence, which depends on attachment, which depends on desire, which depends on sensation, which depends on contact, which depends on the six senses, which depend on name and form, which depend on consciousness, which depends on karma, which depends on ignorance. However, by ending ignorance, then karma, consciousness, name and form, the six senses, contact, sensation, desire, attachment, existence, and birth with all the misery that comes after birth can be ended. Sensation and desire also lead to pursuit, decision, gain, passion, tenacity, possession, avarice, and guarding possessions, which can lead to blows and wounds, strife, quarreling, slander, and lies.

This process is further described in a parable about an ancient kingdom where the celestial wheel symbolizing the dharma disappeared. The king ignored the advice of the sages that he should share some of his wealth with the destitute. This led to widespread poverty and theft. At first the king gave some wealth to a thief to solve his problem, but then not wanting to reward stealing he ordered that thieves have their heads cut off. This led to the arming of the poor, increased violence associated with their stealing, and more murders. This also caused more lying, evil speaking, and false opinions. Eventually greed, adultery, perverted lust, and incest became common, followed by lack of respect for parents, religious teachers, and the heads of the clans. Human life became like hunters feel toward their game, and at times people treated each other like wild beasts. Finally deciding to do something good, people started to abstain from taking life, which led to abstaining from taking what is not given, abstaining from lying, and abstaining from adultery. As the virtues were practiced, the health of the society returned. When this happens, a fully awakened one (Buddha) called Maitreya will come. Until then the Buddha recommended that people live as islands unto themselves, taking the dharma as their refuge, letting the mind be filled with love, compassion, joy, and equanimity.

In another dialog the Buddha clarified the meaning of the eightfold path by saying that right view is knowledge of the four noble truths of suffering, its cause, cessation, and the way that leads to its cessation. Right aspiration is towards benevolence and kindness. Right speech is to abstain from lying, slander, abuse, and idle talk. Right doing is to abstain from taking life, from taking what is not given, and from carnal indulgence. Right livelihood is only described as putting away wrong livelihood. Right effort is toward preventing bad states from arising, putting away evil that has arisen, toward good states arising, and nurturing good that does arise.

Right mindfulness is being self-possessed and mindful in regard to the body, overcoming craving and dejection in feelings, thoughts, and ideas. Right rapture is being aloof from sensuous appetites and evil ideas, entering into and abiding in the four levels of higher awareness. The first of these has cogitation and deliberation born of solitude and is full of ease and joy. The second suppresses cogitation and deliberation evoking by itself concentration, calming the mind and dwelling on high. In the third stage one is disenchanted with joy, is calmly contemplative and aware. The fourth state leaves behind ease and transcends former happiness and melancholy by entering into the rapture of pure mindfulness and equanimity, feeling neither ease nor ill.

According to the Buddha the four motives that lead to evil deeds are partiality, enmity, stupidity, and fear. The six channels for dissipating wealth are being addicted to liquors, frequenting the streets at unseemly hours, haunting fairs, gambling, bad companions, and idleness.

These ethical teachings and discourses on many other subjects are from the sayings (Nikaya) of the Buddha in the first of the Three Baskets (Tripitaka) that make up the Pali Canon. The second basket contains the discipline (Vinaya) books for the monks and nuns. Later commentaries on the original teachings make up the third basket of "higher doctrines" (Abhidharma). The first book in this last collection has been called A Manual of Psychological Ethics (Dhamma-sangani).

The Dhamma-sangani lists the good states of consciousness as the following: contact, feeling, perception, volition, thought, application, sustained thinking, zest, ease, self-collectedness; the faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, insight, ideation, gladness, and life; right views, endeavor, mindfulness, and concentration; the powers of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, insight, conscientiousness, and the fear of blame; the absence of greed, hate, dullness, covetousness, and malice; serenity, lightness, plasticity, facility, fitness, and directness in mind and mental factors; intelligence, quiet, intuition, grasp, and balance.

The list of bad states of consciousness is similar except that the views, intention, endeavor, and concentration are wrong instead of right, and there is unconscientiousness, disregard of blame, lust, dullness, and covetousness instead of their absence. In a further discussion of these ties the perversion of rules and rituals and the disposition to dogmatize are added to covetousness, lust, and ill will. To the cankers (asavas) of sensuality, rebirth, and ignorance is added speculative opinion about useless metaphysical questions such as whether the world is eternal, the soul is infinite, the soul and body are different, or whether one exists after death.

A work on human types (Puggala-pannatti) analyzes individuals in terms of many characteristics such as the six sense organs and their objects (including mind as the sixth sense); eighteen elements of cognition, twenty-two faculties or functions, and such negative traits as being wrathful, vengeful, a hypocrite, a charlatan, jealous, avaricious, shameless, impudent, disobedient, associating with the wicked, having unguarded senses, being immoderate as to food, forgetful, unmindful, infringing moral laws, having wrong views, and internal and external fetters as well as their opposites. However, these texts mostly consist of dry and abstract lists with many repetitions.

Dhammapada
One of the greatest literary works of early Buddhism is the Dhammapada, which was placed among the smaller sayings in the first basket of sutras although it contains 423 stanzas in 26 chapters. Put together from highlights of Buddha's ethical teachings, it was in existence by the time of Emperor Ashoka in the third century BC. It begins with the idea that we are the result of our thoughts, impure or pure.

Those who harbor resentful thoughts toward others, believing they were insulted, hurt, defeated, or cheated, will suffer from hatred, because hate never conquers hatred. Yet hate is conquered by love, which is an eternal law. Those who live for pleasures with uncontrolled senses will be overthrown by temptation. Those who cleanse themselves from impurity, grounded in virtues, possessing self-control and truth are worthy of the yellow robe. Those who imagine truth in untruth and see untruth in truth follow vain desires.

Passion enters an unreflecting mind like rain comes into a badly roofed house. Wrong-doers suffer and grieve in this world and the next, but the virtuous find joy and happiness in both. The second chapter is on awareness and begins:

Awareness is the path of immortality;
thoughtlessness is the path of death.
Those who are aware do not die.
The thoughtless are as if dead already.
The wise having clearly understood this delight in awareness
and find joy in the knowledge of the noble ones.
These wise ones, meditative, persevering,
always using strong effort,
attain nirvana, the supreme peace and happiness.5

It is good to control the mind, but thought is difficult to guard and restrain. Yet a tamed mind brings happiness. A wise person, who shows you your faults, may be followed as though to hidden treasures. The wise, who teach, admonish, and forbid the wrong, will be loved by the good and hated by the bad. The wise mold themselves, as engineers of canals guide water and carpenters shape wood. The path of those who have stilled their passions and are indifferent to pleasure, perceiving release and unconditional freedom, is difficult to understand like that of birds in the sky.

Whoever conquers oneself is greater than the person who conquers in battle a thousand times a thousand people. In regard to punishment this text warns that those who inflict pain on others will not find happiness after death. Self is the master of the self, and a person who is self-controlled finds a master few can find. By oneself wrong is done and suffered, and by oneself one is purified.

In regard to the world the Buddha recommended not following a bad law any more than a wrong idea or thoughtlessness. He advised us not to be attached to the world but to follow the path of virtue, for the world is like a bubble or mirage. Most of the world is blind, but the wise are led out of it by conquering temptation. The teaching of the awakened ones is not to blame nor strike, but to live alone and restrained under the law, moderate in eating, and practicing the highest consciousness.

Joy is the natural state for those who do not hate those who hate them. Craving is the worst disease and disharmony the greatest sorrow. Health and contentment are the greatest wealth, trusting the best relationship, and nirvana the highest joy. Grief comes from pleasure, attachment, greed, lust, and craving. Anger may be overcome by love, wrong by good, avarice by generosity, and a liar by truth. The wise hurt no one and always control their bodies.

There is no fire like lust, no chain like hate;
there is no snare like folly, no torrent like craving.
The faults of others are easy to see;
our own are difficult to see.
A person winnows others' faults like chaff,
but hides one's own faults,
like a cheater hides bad dice.
If a person is concerned about the faults of others
and is always inclined to be offended,
one's own faults grow
and one is far from removing faults.6

Anyone who tries to settle a matter by violence is not just. The wise consider calmly what is right and wrong, proceeding in a way that is nonviolent and fair. For the Buddhist one is not noble because of injuring living beings; rather one is noble, because one does not injure living beings. Whoever realizes that all created things suffer, perish, and are unreal transcends pain. There is no meditation without wisdom and no wisdom without meditation, for in meditating one becomes wise; but in not meditating wisdom is lost. Whoever has wisdom and meditation is close to nirvana.

Lift up your self by yourself;
examine your self by yourself.
Thus self-protected and attentive
you will live joyfully, mendicant.
For self is the master of self;
self is the refuge of self.
Therefore tame yourself,
like a merchant tames a noble horse.
Joyful and faithful in the doctrine of the Buddha,
the mendicant finds peace,
the joy of ending natural existence.7

No one should hurt a holy one, but no holy one should strike back. The sooner the wish to injure disappears, the sooner all suffering will stop. The holy are free of all attachment, anger, and lust. Though having committed no offense, the holy bear reproach, ill treatment, and imprisonment. They are tolerant with the intolerant, peaceful with the violent, and free from greed among the greedy, speaking true words that are useful and not harsh. The holy call nothing their own, letting go of attachment to humans and rising above attachment to the gods. Eventually a holy one knows one's former lives, perceives heaven and hell, and reaches the end of births, having attained perfection.

Questions of King Milinda
Another great literary work of the Theravada ("way of the elders") school of Buddhism is The Questions of King Milinda. Menander was one of the Greek kings who ruled Bactria after the conquests of Alexander, carrying Greek power further into India than any of his predecessors in the last half of the second century BC; his name was Hinduized to Milinda by the unknown Buddhist author, who wrote this work a century or so later.

The philosophical dialog is preceded by a prophecy from the previous lives of the two individuals whereby the Buddha foretold they would have this discussion some five centuries hence. While living as a god in a heavenly world, Mahasena is persuaded to be reborn as Nagasena so that he could help to enlighten this king. King Milinda delights in philosophical discussion and has never met his match until he encounters Nagasena. He asks the sage every difficult question he can think of and is continually amazed at the sagacious replies of Nagasena. In this way the Buddhist doctrine is thoroughly tested and explained.

Even the first question asking his name elicits the response from Nagasena that there is no permanent individuality. King Milinda asks then who it is who lives, receives gifts, devotes himself to meditation, attains enlightenment, etc. Like a chariot it is none of the separate parts though their combination comes under the name "chariot," and he is known as Nagasena. Nagasena wants to know if Milinda will be discussing as a scholar who may be convicted of error or as a king who punishes disagreement, and King Milinda agrees to discuss as a scholar.

The next day the king asks Nagasena what is the goal of his renunciation. The highest aim is the end of sorrow and the complete passing away. Sinful beings are reindividualized after death; sinless ones are not. True wisdom is cutting off one's failings, and this is accomplished by good conduct, faith, perseverance, mindfulness, and meditation. Good conduct is achieved by virtue and wisdom. Faith frees the heart of lust, malice, mental sloth, pride, and doubt. Perseverance renders support, and mindfulness discerns the good qualities from the bad; but meditation is the leader of all the good qualities. The one who will not be born again is more aware and, though suffering physical pain, is free of mental pain.

But if there is no soul or individuality, how does reincarnation occur, and what reincarnates? Nagasena explains the doctrine of karma - how causes have their effects even from one life to the next. One who sets a fire is responsible for the other things that are burned by the spread of the fire. A person who prepares poison and drinks it oneself as well as giving it to others is responsible for one's own pain and shares responsibility for the pain of the others too. According to the Buddha it is karma that causes the many differences among people.

The king asks why the recluses are so concerned about taking care of their bodies if they don't love their bodies. The body is like a wound that must be treated with salve, oil, and a bandage even though one does not love the wound. Although Buddhism is in many ways a pessimistic philosophy, Nagasena nonetheless finds more merit than demerit, because eventually the wrong-doer acknowledges the wrong and feels remorse, eventually correcting and ending demerit. Yet those who do well do not feel remorse but gladness and peace and blissful feelings; thus good increases.

After seven days of abstinence the king continues his discussion with Nagasena, asking him about various dilemmas he found in the Buddhist doctrine. Nagasena solves every problem by giving various illustrations. For example, the Buddha admitted Devadatta to the order even though he knew that he would cause a schism because he perceived that even this contact with the Buddha would keep Devadatta from becoming even worse. Social prejudice is transcended as even a prostitute is able to perform a miracle by the power of truth.

Eleven advantages come to those who feel love toward all beings and put it into practice. Such people sleep in peace, awake in peace, have no sinful dreams, are dear to people and spirits, watched over by gods, not harmed by fire nor poison nor a sword, are easily tranquilized, calm, undismayed by death, and if arhatship is not attained, are reborn in the Brahma world. Though of a loving disposition, Prince Sama was shot by a poisoned arrow, because the virtues are not inherent in the person but are only effective at that moment while in use. The king is convinced that the felt presence of love has the power to ward off all evil mental states. Nagasena agrees heartily:

Yes! The practice of love is productive
of all virtuous conditions of mind
both in good and in evil ones.
To all beings whatsoever,
who are in the bonds of conscious existence,
is this practice of love of great advantage,
and therefore ought it to be sedulously cultivated.8

The king asks Nagasena whether virtue or vice is more powerful. The karma from vice seems to be effectively punished, this balancing in fact causes it to die away rather quickly; while virtue because of its grandeur lasts for a long time. Because virtue is rarely rewarded immediately as vice is often so punished, the results of virtue usually are received more abundantly in the lives to come. Also according to Nagasena vice only affects the doer, while virtue overspreads the whole world of gods and people. By giving the individual no peace the remorse from wrong-doing leads more quickly to the eradication of that evil.

Finally at the end of their discussions King Milinda ordered a building constructed for Nagasena and the monks, turned his kingdom over to his son, abandoned the household life to become homeless, grew in insight, and eventually became an arhat himself.

Community (Sangha)
After the Buddha's death in 483 BC, the first Buddhist Council was led by Mahakassapa during which Ananda recited the discourses on the doctrine and Upali the rules of the discipline. These were then memorized and became the first two baskets of the Pitaka, the Sutta and Vinaya. Buddhism added abstinence from intoxicants to the four cardinal rules of abstaining from violence, stealing, lying, and sexual misconduct.

At Buddhist gatherings the Pratimokshasutra was recited, followed by confessions of monks who felt they had violated any of it. The four offenses that led to expulsion were having sexual intercourse, taking what was not given, taking of a human life or persuading anyone to commit suicide, and falsely boasting of supernatural attainments. The thirteen offenses deserving suspension included sexual misdemeanors, harming living beings by building a hut, falsely accusing another monk of a major offense, persisting in causing divisions in the community, and refusing to move when admonished by other monks. Other minor violations were eating between meals, attending secular entertainment, using unguents and jewelry, using high or luxurious beds, and handling money.

A century after the death of the Buddha the monks of Vaishali relaxed the rules on ten minor points, leading to contributions of money to the monks. These were protested by the elder Yasa, who organized a council to condemn the changed rules. The easterners from Vaishali became known as Mahasanghikas, and the traditional westerners Theravada. According to tradition Theravada soon divided into eleven sects and Mahasanghikas into seven. Thus Buddhism was administered locally, though a monk could reside in any monastery irrespective of sect.

In the third century BC the Emperor Ashoka tried to unite the Buddhists, but he was stricken with remorse when his minister beheaded monks refusing to comply. Advised by the most learned monk of the time, Moggaliputta Tissa, all monks who did not follow the Theravada were dismissed from the community, and refutations of heretical views were published in the Kathavatthu of the Abhidamma basket. The number of sects was reduced, but others later denied that Ashoka ever held such a council. Regardless of whether that council was held, the support of Ashoka for Buddhism greatly expanded its influence so that it was even adopted and promoted by Greek rulers such as Menander.

The deification of the Buddha by the non-Theravadins led to the ideal of the Bodhisattva or future Buddha instead of the mere arhat. Bodhisattvas are enlightened persons, who postpone their own nirvana in order to help save all sentient creatures. This along with the conception of the pure mind (vijnana) eventually led to the "Greater Vehicle" or Mahayana Buddhism.

According to Edward Conze the earliest part of the Prajnaparamita Sutra is from about the first century BC.9 It explains that the Bodhisattva comprehending the truth does not retire into the blessed rest but dwells in wisdom to help others. In this wisdom one finds that all truths are empty. The Bodhisattva, assured of future Buddhahood by previous Buddhas, whether absorbed in trance or not, knows the essential original nature. Seeing everything and everyone as illusion, the Bodhisattva is not attached to anything, while guiding all beings to nirvana. The world is transcended in this practice of wisdom, the highest perfection. Later during the Christian era this form of Buddhism was to spread into China and throughout Asia.

Among the major religions Buddhism is unusual, like Jainism, in that it did not originally believe in God, though it recognized gods and goddesses and heavens and hells. Less stringent and more popular than the ascetic Jainism, it's emphasis on ethical behavior and the quest for enlightenment appealed to both those who renounced the world and laypeople. Though it also offered excellent individual models of ethical behavior and friendly attitudes, except in its religious community it was unable to convert society as a whole to its way of nonviolence any more than Jainism could.

Nevertheless in my opinion both Jainism and Buddhism even more provided outstanding examples of supremely ethical attitudes and actions. They were not afraid to criticize the priestly corruptions of Brahminism nor the violent ambitions of the ruling class (Kshatriyas). Mahavira and the Buddha were great teachers and leaders, and the non-theistic religions they founded nourished and enriched the spiritual tradition of India and encouraged ethical behavior among its people.

Perhaps the greatest contribution they both made was to make nonviolence a noble path in a culture where the word for noble (Aryan) had stood for racism based on color and the violent conquest of India. Their devotion to truthfulness and their ability to live simple lives with few material possessions as well as their chastity kept their lives relatively pure and free of entanglements and exploitation. Though surely not without their individual imperfections and occasional schisms, the good contributed to the world by these teachings and the lives of their best followers must have been substantial.

http://translate.google.cn/translate?hl=zh-CN&sl=en&u=http://www.san.beck.org/EC9-Buddha.html&ei=muC4Sf6rK9jZkAWRvemkCA&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=1&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3DThe%2Bhunter%2Bnamely%2Bhas%2Bbeen%2Bconverted%2Bthe%2BBuddha%26hl%3Dzh-CN%26sa%3DG%26newwindow%3D1